The Role of Trees in Terry Kays To Dance With The White Dog :: Dance With The White Dog Essays

The Role of Trees in Terry Kays To Dance With The White Dog In the novel To Dance With The White Dog in that location are many similarities between Sam Peek and Kays father. The Dedication and Authors Note, located before and after theb1 novel, give the reader insight into the true implication of the book. In the Authors Note Kay speaks of his father and the production trees that he cared for from this a correlation arises with Sam Peek and his beloved pecan trees. Terry Kays father cultivates fruit trees. Fruit trees generally live for approximately ten years then die off. It call fors fruit trees three to five years before they will stick out fruit. Overall fruit trees require a short term commitment. Although Kays father became famous for his well grown trees, it did not require the dedication and cartridge clip that Sam Peek had to exert for his pecan trees.b2 In the novel Sam Peek has dedicated his life to the growth and production of his pecan trees. Pe can trees take at least five years to yield fruit and can live up to seventy-five years. They take much more time and reason to yield profit. Cultivating pecan trees is a life long project. In the novel Sam Peek dedicates his life to the care of his pecan trees. In his old age, when he is retired from the tree business, he still has the commitment to go to the pecan orchard and pull weeds. This shows Sam Peeks strong bonds to his life and familyb3. He is very much buttoned down to the land around his family home. His dedication to his trees is because he wishes to provide a good life for his family. He pours a lot of effort into this wish. While indicant this novel the reader interprets the meaning of the author based on the knowledge that the book is fictional however, when the reader finds out that there is some truth to the business relationship at the end of the book they must reevaluate their interpretations.b4b4 Kay reveals in the Authors Note at the end of the book that the character of Sam Peek is based on his father.

Roles of Women During the Renaissance as Seen in Shakespeares Henry IV

Roles of Women During the spiritual rebirth as Seen in Shakespeares Henry IV The plays of Shakespeare can be used as a window upon Renaissance society. However, if one looks through this window and does not leave behind the ideals of a modern society, the view may become distorted and not be as pleasing as it was for Shakespeares contemporaries. In I Henry IV, the characters of the women are not equally developed as the male characters but their interaction, or lack thereof, depicts the changing, all the same somehow stagnant, roles of women during the English Renaissance. In I Henry IV, the themes of public and private life are brought together (Speaight, 163). Elizabethan society was marked by sex seperation, both publicly and privately. Lady Percy does not play an active role outside of Hotspurs private life. To Hotspur, a womans world was To play with mammets and to tilt with lips (2. 2. 91), a winning powerless occupation that did not mix with mans domain of bloody nose s and cracked crowns (2. 2. 92). Although women writing during this time affirmed that women are tender foft and beautifull, fo doth her difpofition in minde correfponde thusly she is milde, yielding, and and vertuous(Sowernam, 43), women among the higher social classes began to question their inferiority to men as a result of the new emphasis on education for women. The heightened exposure to Biblical and chaste influences among Renaissance women created paradoxical results. Education was designed to fill specific private functions and responsabilities (Travitsky, 5). Women were not boost to leave their place within the home, but instead were encouraged on the development of the home as a school of faith ... ...lewd, froward, and unconstant men, and Husbands. Divided into Two Parts. The first proveth the dignity and worthinesse of Women, out of divine Testimonies. The second shewing the adhesion of the Foe-minine Sexe, in ancient and Pagan times all which is acknowledged by m en themselves in their actions. Written by Ester Sowernam, neither Maide,Wife, nor Widdowe, yet really all, and therefore experienced to defend all. London Printed for Nicholas Bourne, 1617. STC 22974. University Microfilms Reel no 1188. 4. Spaight, Robert. Shakespeare The Man and his Achievement. London J.M. Dent and Sons Ltd., 1977. 5. Travitsky, Betty, ed. The Paradise of Women Writings by Englishwomen of the Renaissance. Westport Greenwood Press, 1981. 6. Watson, Curtis Brown. Shakespeare and the Renaissance Concept of Honor. Princeton Princeton University Press, 1960.

The Role Of The Media In Democracy Essays -- essays research papers f

How much does your balloting really count? As a voter, does your choice really matter? How much mildew does the media have on your vote? How many choices does the media actually make when it comes to our nations leadership? These are questions pondered by both political scientists and the average American citizen each year as the second Tuesday in November approaches. Though we know that the framers founded this nation on the principles of representing its citizens, and on the ideals of a nation for the pile and by the people it is obvious that the people feel that their vote doesnt always count. In this paper I plan to expand on these questions and the justifications behind asking them, and I plan to follow up with a specific example in which the media played a highly significant role in the choice of high government officials. How much does your vote really count? Does your choice really matter? According to the framers, your choice does matter. They say that one man equals on e vote. Congress also seems to believe that the American vote should count. They have passed Amendments to the Constitution in order to give more(prenominal) people the chance to vote and the chance to make a choice of their representatives. further why then does the people actually presently elect so few officials? Perhaps they agree with the ideas of Converse and Lane and are using pick out only as a way to attempt to get the citizens out of the voting slump they seem to be in. Converse stated that voters are minimally informed, minimally capable, and therefore incompetent of voting. Lane claims that this is not the problem, but that instead, voters are simply lazy in their ideology. (Muraca, July 13, 1999) I tend to agree with both, but I dont feel that the fault lies on the shoulders of the people. Rather, I feel that the burden of voter incompetence lies on the shoulders of the media. Voters are not uninformed perse, but they are exceptional in the amount in information th at they posses. The reason that this information is limited is because of the media. Media makes the choice everyday what they do and do not want the public to know. The antecedent to make the choice of our knowledge rests in their hands. Without the information they pass on from day to day, we, as voters know nothing about the happenings of our government. Yet on more than one occasion the media has held back information that c... .... It is a nation founded on free speech and freedom of the press, and the media uses these freedoms to influence some of the most important decisions that may ever occur in our country. It is somewhat scary that the fate of our nation could be put in the hands of the King of Porn, but at the resembling time it is somewhat invigorating. As citizens, the framers entrusted everyday citizens with the right to influence the actions and fate of our government, even if only through a small article in the newspaper. fifty-fifty though they did give the me dia this right, and we as citizens the right to use it, they still found fault with the nation as a whole. Otherwise, citizens would have been given the chance to directly elect those they feel represent them the best. The question of why they did this remains, but the fault lies at the feet of the media for keeping the citizens left uninformed and unable to cast a level-headed vote. Works CitedJanda, Berry, Goldman. The Challenge of Democracy. Sixth Edition. Houghton Mifflin, 1999. Muraca, Stephanie, T.. In-class-notes. July 13, 1999.Shepard, Alicia, C.. "Gatekeepers Without Gates", American Journalism News Link. March 1999.

Sylvia Plath Essay -- Sylvia Plath Biography Biographies Essays

Sylvia Plath was a gifted writer, poet and verbal artist whose personal anguish and torment visibly manifested itself in her work. Much of her angst stems from her warped relationship with her father. Other factors that influenced her industrial plant were her strained views of human sexuality, her sado-masochistic tendencies, self-hatred and her traditional upbringing. She was labeled as a confessional poet and biographical and historical material is absolutely necessary to understand her work.Syliva Plath was born on 27, 1963, in Boston, Massachusetts to Otto Emil Plath and Aurelia Schober. Otto Plath was a professor of biology and German at Boston University. He was of German descent and had emigrated from Grabow when he was fifteen. Her mother was a starting signal generation American she was born in Boston to Austrian parents. Their common Germanic background indirectly led to their meeting in 1929. Aurelia Schober took a German class taught by Otto Plath. Aurelia was working on a masters degree in English and German at Bosto n University. Otto Plath was guided by his principles of discipline. Their background was one major source of for Sylvias poetic imagery. Sylvias brother, Warren, was born on April 27, 1935. After Warrens birth, the family moved to Winthrop, Massachusetts skilful east of Boston. Ottos health began to fail shortly after Warrens birth. He thought he had cancer as a hotshot of his, with similar symptoms, had recently lost a battle with lung cancer. He refused to seek medical care due to the lack of a cure or efficient treatment at that time. In 1940 after suffering ill health for years, Otto was forced to see a doctor for an infection in his foot. The doctor diagnosed the distemper Otto has been suffering from as not cancer, but diabetes- -and not do advanced that it threatened his life. Ottos leg had to be removed in October after he developed gangrene, and he spent the rest of his days in the hospital rapidly declining. (Nueroti c Poets) Otto Plath died on the night of November 5, 1940. Her fatherss death scarred her permanently theirs was an extraordinarily close relationship. In 1942, Aurelia moved the family to Wellesley so that she could return to work despite her own health problems to support her family.Sylvia began writing when she was only five years old. Her start publication was a short couplet she wrote when she was eigh... ...hould be able to control and manipulate experiences even the most terrifying, like madness, being tortured, this sort of experience, and one should be able to manipulate these experiences with an informed and intelligent mind. (Uroff 37)Plaths work is valuable for its ability to reach todays reader, because of its concern with the real problems of our culture. In this age of gender conflicts, broken families, and economic inequities, Plaths forthright language speaks loudly about the anger of being both betrayed and powerless. She was hailed as literary symbolism of the womens rights movement and a feminist writer of great significance. Sylvia Plath began by creating art that imitated life, but ended when life imitated art. Works CitedButscher, Edward, ed. with and introduction. Sylvia Plath the woman and the work. refreshing York Dodd, Mead, 1977.Plath, Sylvia. The Journals of Sylvia Plath. Ed. Ted Hughes and Frances McCullough. New York Ballantine Books, 1982.Sylvia Plath. Ed. Brenda C Mondragon. n.d. Web. 18 May 2015. http//www.neuroticpoets.com/plath/Uroff, Margaret Dickie. Sylvia Plath and Ted Hughes. Urbana University of Illinois Press, 1979.

St. Johns Wort As A Treatment For Depression: Herbal Healer or Ineffec

St. Johns Wort As A Treatment For Depression Herbal Healer or Ineffective Alternative?This inelegant has its share of major health issues, and Depression has remained a prominent one. With a prevalence rate of one in twenty suffering from this psychological indisposition in the US, (1) it is no wonder that many varying treatment options now exist for sufferers. The most common approach to treating Depression is with some form of psychotherapeutics coupled with prescription drugs. However, this traditional course of treatment now has the so called alternative approaches to contend with. One such alternative therapy is Hypericum, an herb that is more commonly know as St. Johns Wort. There is a bubbling debate between believers in the herbal treatment and non-believers (comprised mostly of doctors and researchers) who think St. Johns Wort does nothing for Depression. From both sides of the debate, however, there fuddle been some interesting findings. There is a common understanding that St. Johns Wort was named after John the Baptist. Hypericum perforatum is its Latin name. St. Johns Wort is a naturally occurring plant characterized by its black-spotted discolour flowers. Historically it has been hailed as an effective treatment for an array of ailments, including digestive disorders, lung ailments, skin abrasions, and as a general inducer of state of well being. From its supporting side, the argument is that St. Johns Wort should be treated as comparable to prescription antidepressants and as just another available option for the millions who are depressed in this country. Supporters often site the accompaniment that German doctors endorse millions of doses of the herb daily, and elsewhere in Europe, the medical community readily ack... ...cription, mixing herbs with prescription drugs For More Information http//my.webmd.com/content/article/13/1668_502097) Newsweek article A Natural Mood Booster, treating Depression with St. Johns Wort http//www.iherb.com/ iherb/newmay519nat.html8) National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), Information About St. Johns Wort page http//www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/stjohnswort.cfm9) National have-to doe with for Complementary and Alternative Medicine , St. Johns Wort Fact Sheet http//nccam.nih.gov/nccam/fcp/factsheets/stjohnswort/stjohnswort.htm10) National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine , St. Johns Wort Q & A http//nccam.nih.gov/ne/press-releases/stjohnswort/q-and-a.htm11) Health World Online , big businessman of articles on Depression and herbal remedies http//www.healthy.net/asp/templates/condition.asp?ConditionId=90

St. Johns Wort As A Treatment For Depression: Herbal Healer or Ineffec

St. Johns Wort As A Treatment For Depression Herbal Healer or unavailing Alternative?This country has its share of major health issues, and Depression has remained a prominent one. With a prevalence rate of one in twenty detriment from this psychological disease in the US, (1) it is no wonder that many varying treatment options now exist for sufferers. The most common approach to treating Depression is with about form of psychotherapy coupled with prescription drugs. However, this traditional course of treatment now has the so called alternative approaches to contend with. One such alternative therapy is Hypericum, an herb that is more commonly known as St. Johns Wort. There is a bubbling debate between believers in the herbal treatment and non-believers (comprised mostly of doctors and researchers) who think St. Johns Wort does nothing for Depression. From both sides of the debate, however, there have been some interesting findings. There is a common understanding that St. Johns Wort was named after John the Baptist. Hypericum perforatum is its Latin name. St. Johns Wort is a naturally occurring ground characterized by its black-spotted yellow flowers. Historically it has been hailed as an effective treatment for an array of ailments, including digestive disorders, lung ailments, skin abrasions, and as a general inducer of state of well being. From its reinforcement side, the argument is that St. Johns Wort should be treated as comparable to prescription antidepressants and as just another available option for the millions who are depressed in this country. Supporters very much site the fact that German doctors endorse millions of doses of the herb daily, and elsewhere in Europe, the medical community readily ack... ...cription, mixing herbs with prescription drugs For More Information http//my.webmd.com/ glut/article/13/1668_502097) Newsweek article A Natural Mood Booster, treating Depression with St. Johns Wort http//www.iherb.com/iherb/newmay519nat.h tml8) National Institute of Mental wellness (NIMH), Information About St. Johns Wort paginate http//www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/stjohnswort.cfm9) National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine , St. Johns Wort Fact Sheet http//nccam.nih.gov/nccam/fcp/factsheets/stjohnswort/stjohnswort.htm10) National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine , St. Johns Wort Q & A http//nccam.nih.gov/ne/press-releases/stjohnswort/q-and-a.htm11) Health World Online , index of articles on Depression and herbal remedies http//www.healthy.net/asp/templates/condition.asp?ConditionId=90

Sears Roebuck and Company

Sears, Roebuck & Comp whatever was once oneness of the largest retailers in the country. Their mission statement and cultural beliefs were something that they stood by firmly and gave their guests 100% customer satisfaction. Over the years, Sears have deviated from their original statements of what they promised their customers and employees. Because of this deviation their company perception and cultural views have completely changed.Sears, Roebuck & Company Sears & Roebuck, and Company was founded in 1893 as a mail-order compose that based their entire business on the needs of rural American farmers. They were at the demands of their customers solely. They even compensated their customers for referring their neighbors. Their mission was We sell everything by mail-order only. Your money pass on be promptly returned for any goods not perfectly satisfactory and we will pay freight or express charges both ways. (www.searsholding.com) Then other retailers had a difficult time tryin g to reach the customer satisfactory that Sears were offering their clientele.Then in the 1930s, Sears began to shift more toward the urban American population. Sears, Roebuck & Company is still the same mail-order along with a few stores but the same expectations. The customer could shop from home, and the merchandise would be shipped to his or her door front. After the Great Depression, Sears sired an wonderful tumble that led them to terminate the catalog. This started the spiral downfall for their customer satisfaction.Nowadays, Sears & Roebuck Department Store mission statement is We are committed to improving the lives of our customers by providing whole tone services, products and solutions that earn their trust and build lifetime relationships. To answer, delight, and engage our fragments while they shopntheir way The stores cultural beliefs areMembers First I deliver a wow experience to each member by projecting their specific needs and offering them the right produ cts and services. Own It I take accountability to close the gaps as I See It, Own It, Solve It, and Do It. Embrace Feedback I am open, honest, and respectful in my communions, and constantly seek, accept, and offer feedback. Show Pride I am an engaged member. I demonstrate passion and pride by leading by example. Learn and innovate I learn new ways to serve members and do my line of products better by embracing innovation and technology. Earn Trust I work hard to earn the trust of every member I serve and every co-worker I interact with. Be Authentic I am genuine in all my interactions, ask questions to understand and align my words and action to achieve the key results. (www.searsholding.com)Espoused Vs. Enacted ValuesSince the early 1990s when Sears began to fall apart, their mission statement, and beliefs have been deviated from. They pay their employees the lowest salaries of all retailers that cause their associates to find from enjoying their employment. Possessing em ployees who do not feel appreciated causes them not to do everything they have promised their customers in their missions and beliefs.The misalignment between the espoused values and the enacted values of a store affects the perception because what the customer and employees have read and heard what he should be receiving from the store is not what he is getting. This makes the store seem to be unorganized and not professional. Organizations CultureSears burnish seems to be very informal. Based upon what their cultural beliefs and mission statement (espoused values) is stated to be and what their behavior and customer relations (enacted values) are based on employee and customer feedback, it concludes that the culture is informal. CommunicationCommunication is determined by the culture of organization. Sears culture is informal so therefore the communication of the organization would also beinformal. The communication of Sears follows the grapevine. It is he says she says. After co mplementary research on the company and interviewing several employees, both former, and present, the chain of communication in the store is never given in the form of chain of command. If one associate hears any form of information, it is spread throughout the store by associates not upper management.PerceptionCommunication plays a large role in the perception of the company and in its organizational culture. If there is no formal and direct means of communication, the employees, and customers will never know exactly what needs to be done and how the store is run. This leads to the customers losing trust in the salesman who makes it more difficult to make a purchase with him or her. This leads into a train reaction. From the wish of sales because of the lack of trust, leads into a lack of good morale in the store, causing the associates to become even more informal and not care little about their job and the entire culture and perception of the store consistently tumbles downward .ConflictGroup communication will always have some form of engagement involved in it. Whether the pigeonholing communication is formal or informal, conflict will always be there. Whether the conflict is handled appropriately or not is the major problem. Organizations that practice informal communication will have a more difficult time working through the conflict and find a solution.Because Sears has an informal means of communication, handling conflict seems not to be one of their strong points. The more conflict in the store will only make the stores functionalities even more difficult and less functional. Conflict in Sears without better leadership will be a horrible situation.ConclusionSears, Roebuck & Company once one of the most customers satisfied retailers. Nowadays that is no longer the situation. Although their previous and current mission statements are very similar in wording, they have deviated from the meaning so far. Because of this their cultural view and perceptio nhas changed tremendously in the eyes of their customers. When a company moves away from the goals, they have set to accommodate and satisfy both their employees and customers, it is not successful for the company. The major obstacle for any company is to maintain truth to their values and beliefs published for their customers and if this one obstacle is achieved there is longevity of success ahead of them.

Effective Approaches in Leadership and Management Essay

The arrangement of health cargon system has reciprocated in regard to provide quality and modest c ar. The word of healthcare facilities overhear changeover at different levels in speciality care and acute illnesses to defensive health plan. The changes have seized effective direct approaches and pitching care. With the effort to balance the demands of patient needs in health care, many considerations are made including adjustments with budgets, decreasing excessive costs, and practicing effective means of delivery care. Nurses are challenged to keep up to a work environment that requires continual changes. The breast feeding industry today faces shortage, as many nurses have low job satisfaction, naughty compassion fatigue, and the patient ratios levels associate immense acuity. Furthermore, these factors have resulted in patient satisfaction and medical reimbursements. Notwithstanding all the identified issues and its effects, few nurse facilities are growing to next level to identify and promote nursing skills by setting framework to endeavour to gain Magnet status.This paper will snap in comparing and contrasting the expectations of the nursing buss and leaders approaches that may use in regard to magnet status. Magnet status is best defined by Miriam Hospital as a designation that is rewarded to hospitals for the concept of Magnet Culture it is a working environment which enables nurses to practice and focus on skilful nursing, involving bedside finis making, nursing development and involvement, competent education, and promote nursing leadership skills (Miriam Hospital, n. d. ) The birth of magnet status undertook in beginning of 1980s when some hospitals were practicing bare-assed retaining ideas for nursing staff with motivation for patient care. Therefore, this concept was developed after few researches and finally it was made official through an article named Magnet Hospitals Attraction and computer storage of Professional Nurses, written and published in 1983 by Dr. McClure president of the American Academy of nurse (AAN), professor at New York University, and a member of the accepted task force (Hawke, 2004).Statistics prove that Magnet hospitals have superlative patient satisfaction scores, protected patient environments, minority of repeat admissions, and improved patient outcome. It is full of life that various pre-requisites and qualifications must be met and maintained to execute the concept of Magnet status. The nursing leadershipand management work in synchronization with their defined roles to carry through the goals of completing the tasks by establishing nursing staff participation needed to achieve skilful nursing. In order to receive accurate results, it is essential to define roles and score essential outcomes. According to Huber (2010), the aspect of management is to cater the resources that are required to achieve the target goal of organisation. A manager is expected to plan, organise and ins trument strategies from an organizing high level to enable the outline of requirements to meet the goal. The manager is responsible to practice the policies and procedures and carry them appropriately.In order to achieve Magnet status, the nurse manager needs to survey the patients and staff to identify and construct the areas of weakness that would improve the patient satisfaction. Some of the basic actions include financial stability by cut down the amount of waste, safeguarding medical reimbursement with patient satisfaction, and nursing practices that mirror decisions like bedside reporting, friendly patient care education, and timely rounding. The nursing leader is expected to provide jockstrap to the nurse manager in achieving goals by promoting smooth work flows through communication, and provide better understanding of their overall vision, and reasoning why these adjustments are inevitable. The nursing leader can accomplish this by promoting trust and endeavouring mutual consent while managing issues (The difference between leadership and management, 2012). In comparison and contrast of the nursing managers and leader approaches there are few points to be considered. In management, the goals are carried out with the help of managers within the organisation.Whereas the leaders help to identify and develop new approaches to the issues emerging in the organisation. The managers work to fulfil the goals and continue to do, whereas the leaders undergo risks to challenge people and new ideas to break the chain (The difference between leadership and management, 2012). Frellick (2011) states that Magnet concept is created to facilitate and empower shared decision-making and accountability process. To achieve success in this concept, the healthcare facilities need to master in the regulations well cognise as the Fourteen Forces of Magnetism, it consists of the new levels in nursing management, encouraging strong participation, and place where nurses are re cognised and are able to contribute to the give management. In addition, one more key to success ifthe interdisciplinary relationships it means the members of each department of healthcare are able to co-ordinate and work unneurotic such as nurses, physicians, pharmacists and therapists.Leadership aims on mutual consent of all team members and promotes respect and involvement of all departments, shared responsibilities and leadership style for actions. It is an necessary personal approach of the writer that personal involvement is the key for building working relationships between management and leadership professionals as they both promotes the organisational goals. If the nursing professionals have opinions and ideas that matters for the wellbeing of the patient satisfaction, then an extra effort to highlight the need is essential. Any new idea is difficult to execute without the commitment and facilitation of the managers and leaders and too among the other parties involved. R eal efforts and success can be achieved by working together as a team, and aiming to contribute in a continuous methods in healthcare facilities for total patient satisfaction.ReferencesFrellick, M. (2011). A Path to Nursing Excellence. Hospitals & Health Networks. Advance online publication. Retrieved from Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about Magnet. (2013). Retrieved from Hawke, M. (2004, January). Magnet Status Attracts Mettle. Nursing Spectrum, 19-21. Retrieved from Huber, D. L. (2010). Leadership and Nursing Care Management (4th ed.). Retrieved from Miriam Hospital. (n.d.). Retrieved from The difference between leadership and management. (2012). Retrieved from

Background in computer science, mathematics, and information systems

I had just finished my Bachelors in Commerce and was measure different options of next study that would serve my career best. This was twelve years back and I was one of the fortunate many who were aware of the outsourcing story in India. US Multinationals were off shoring more and more large software projects to India. There was a tremendous shortage of computer skills in the world and India, which foresaw this stepped in to charter the gap The Indian software industry, had zoomed from a mere $ 20 million in 1978 to $ 4 billion in 1998-99, of which $ 2. 6 billion was exported.India had achieved this effort by leveraging its most valuable resource, that of highly skilled manpower. These facts stared at all young aspirants who were looking at a bright approaching career and I decided to make the most of this opportunity by entering the Information Technology sphere to enhance my skills and improve myself. The thirst is not everyplace as yet and I am applying for get the hang today after relevant exposure and experience. Right from High School. I had a focal point with meter and this made me get an A in Mathematics in my High School, and very good grades in my Accounts, Costing and Statistics in BCom.This aptitude and say-so in my quantitative skills made me choose the field of Computers where I knew a persons logical thinking was the key to success. I got my Post alum sheepskin in Computer Sciences from Comp-U-Serve, a professional organization. I cleared my Microsoft Certified Professional exams and also did a course at Harvard University in hike up net deviseing and secured an A I also joined a Masters program in Computer Applications and the following are the courses that I studied during my training at Vivekananda. 1. IT Tools and Applications. 2 Business Systems. 3 Programming and Problem Solving through C Language .4 Computer Organisation. 5 Structured System Analysis & Design. I started my career as a Systems Administrator and Training Facu lty with a Computer Training Institute called Wintech Computers where I learnt a lot about genuine world computing in Java and Net failing. My next learning curve took me to General Electric which gave me a totally different perspective. I was appointed as a Client Services Analyst for one of the worlds first off-shoring trials of Net operation operations to India, where I had to study Information Systems and Network trading operations in the join States and off shore the whole process to my peers in India.Later, I joined a start up IT consulting firm in the United States, Mascon Global Consulting. I induct been with this firm for the past 6 years and have helped clients like Novartis Pharmaceuticals, Verizon and McGraw Hill with implementing various IT solutions Novartis gave me exposure to how information Systems could be employ for purposes of research, of innovation in drugs and rules and regulations in the manufacture of drugs. At Verizon I got a chance to work and Impleme nt path breaking protocols like Voice oer IP which was a very strategic product as all of Verizons future voice products will be based on this platform.I play an instrumental role in creating a prototype for VOIP which was based on SIP technology. My work also led me to create a framework for scrutiny Verizons VOIP Client for authentic world scenarios by adding jitter, delay and packet loss development NIST NET Software and being able to compare it with different clients such as Google, MSN and Yahoo etc. The proposed prototype for VOIP was very well accepted and is currently in use at Verizon. Technical excellence explains why India was identified by 82 per cent of American companies as their top destination for software outsourcing, fit in to a World Bank survey.My education and work experience have intensified my thirst for Masters in Information Systems. Second version I had just finished my Bachelors in Commerce and was weighing different options of future study that would serve my career best. This was twelve years back and I was one of the fortunate many who were aware of the outsourcing story in India. US Multinationals were off shoring more and more large software projects to India.There was a tremendous shortage of computer skills in the world and India, which foresaw this stepped in to fill the gap India was leveraging its most valuable resource, that of highly skilled manpower These facts stared at all young aspirants who were looking at a bright future career and I decided to make the most of this opportunity by entering the Information Technology sphere to enhance my skills and improve myself. The thirst is not over as yet and I am applying for Masters today after relevant exposure and experience. Right from High School., I had a way with numbers and this made me get an A in Mathematics in my High School, and very good grades in my Accounts, Costing and Statistics in B. COM. This aptitude and confidence in my quantitative skills made me choo se the field of Computers where I knew a persons logical thinking was the key to success. I got my Post Graduate Diploma in Computer Sciences from Comp-U-Serve, a professional organization. I cleared my Microsoft Certified Professional exams and also did a course at Harvard University in Advance networking and secured an A.I started my career as a Systems Administrator and Training Faculty with a Computer Training Institute called Wintech Computers where I learnt a lot about real world computing in Java and Networking. My next learning curve took me to General Electric which gave me a totally different perspective. I was appointed as a Client Services Analyst for one of the worlds first off-shoring trials of Network Operations to India, where I had to study Information Systems and Network Operations in the United States and off shore the whole process to my peers in India.My experience in the course of my first interaction with GE Plastics was unique Later, I joined a start up IT co nsulting firm in the United States, Mascon Global Consulting. I have been with this firm for the past 6 years and have helped clients like Novartis Pharmaceuticals, Verizon and McGraw Hill with implementing various IT solutions Novartis gave me exposure to how information Systems could be used for purposes of research, of innovation in drugs and rules and regulations in the manufacture of drugs.At Verizon I got a chance to work and Implement path breaking protocols like Voice Over IP which was a very strategic product as all of Verizons future voice products would be based on this platform. I played an instrumental role in creating a prototype for VOIP which was based on SIP technology. My work also led me to create a framework for testing Verizons VOIP Client for real world scenarios by adding jitter, delay and packet loss using NIST NET Software and being able to compare it with other clients such as Google, MSN and Yahoo etc.The proposed prototype for VOIP was very well accepted and is currently in use at Verizon. Technical excellence explains why India was identified by 82 per cent of American companies as their top destination for software outsourcing, according to a World Bank survey. My education and work experience have shown me that there is much more to excellence and have intensified my thirst for Masters in Information Systems.

Isolation: a Comparative Essay Essay

In William Shakespeares play settlement, the concept of identity is explored through hamlets closing off which is created by the conflict between his duty to his father, and his duties to the monarchy and his peers. Gertrude suffers the same identity questions through her isolation and also that of her paroles. The isolation they experience not only is caused by nigh sort of tragic event, only when also provokes many dilemmas in their lives that they both have to work through, but it also results in a luck of trouble, and heartbreak for more than besides themselves.For people who are royalty such as settlement and Gertrude, it seems as though it would be difficult to be isolated, or to have anything bad happen to them. They are al federal agencys surrounded by people, who approve them, or who want to be them. But maybe thats just it maybe small town and Gertrude being royalty started the downfall. There is normally one point in time, one moment that causes the big downfall, one thing that divide away any strength the person had to battle their isolation. The one thing for small town is the death of his father.Being a son, the father is the biggest role model and usually the person the son looks up to and learns from the most. To make things worst, in the beginning of the play Hamlets isolation can also be due to the occurrence that he is unaware of foul murder by Claudius. Hamlet also experiences strayals from his friends Guildenstern and Rosencrantz. When they betray Hamlet it provokes Hamlet to start to question his relationships not only with them, but also with his other friends and family.All saws of books, all forms, all pressures pastAnd thy commandment all alone shall livewithin the book and volume of my brain,Unmixed with baser matter. (I.5.99-104)Hamlets mother Gertrude and Uncle Claudius both betray his trust. Theactions of his uncle, Claudius, are the cause of Hamlets reactions throughout the play which isolates Hamlet from the only fa mily that he has in the play. Finally, when Hamlet tries to get to the root of things and he pretends to go mad, he isolates himself from his friends, family, and especially Ophelia. The root of Hamlets isolation is his suffering of false friends and betrayals, and his own secretive nature. These unserviceable circumstances of Hamlets loneliness and its effect on Hamlet are the study contributing factors leading to his tragic downfall. Similar to Hamlet, his mother, Gertrude also has a tragic event that causes the start of her isolation.This is the death of her husband, the King. Gertrude, as well as Hamlet, is not aware of how her husband passed away, and that someone close to her, and her son is the perpetrator. Although the loss is nasty for Hamlet, it is also really difficult for Gertrude. King and Queen, thats how it goes. Where there is a nance, there is always a queen to follow, and vise versa. When the king is gone, it leaves just the queen, Gertrude to be all by herself . With no one to sleep with at night, and no one to love and have him love her back. She is isolated in a major way. And being just the queen is not easy.When something tragic happens to one, it is not easy to cope with. You want to make life go back to just the way it was before, although of course, there go out be things in the way, such as dilemmas. Hamlet crosses paths with many of them throughout his journey. The first one being when he learns of the murder of his father. The specter tells Hamlet to avenge his death, which is the first dilemma, murdering his uncle. He tries and he thinks about it all of the time and tries to come up with ways that Claudius will show his guilt for a way that he will be able to murder Claudius. But thats just it, he thinks about it all of the time, but does not brood through with his plan.King O, my offence is rank. It smells to heaven.It hath the primal eldest curse upont,A brothers murder. Pray can I not,Though inclination be as sharp as wil l.My stronger guilt defeats my strong intent. (III.3.36-40)Hamlet wants to focus himself entirely on this task, and wants no distractions. So, he plays with Ophelias head she is a charwoman that he sees romantically. He tells her he never loved her, causing her to go mad. This is the next step Hamlet has to take to continue his plan. He confides in some friends so they are aware of his well being and acts as if he is mad. He does this to get answers, and maybe even find a small, tiny baste of closure. This is his way of dealing with the death of his father, and the pain that it makes him feel.Hamlet also becomes isolated from many men, including Claudius and Laertes, due to the fact that they all want him dead, and wants many of them dead. Similarly, Gertrude is also ail by the death of King Hamlet, she loved him, and she loves her son as well. Back then she would have no choice on who she could marry it would be judge of her. When there is a kingdom, a monarchy, and society tha t needs to be ruled, there has to be a king in the picture, no queen can grip it by themselves. Gertrude even married him in the same few days as her husbands funeral. In the eyes of Hamlet, the actions of his mother totally betray him. When he needs someone the most, she is off with a brisk man.Her marrying Claudius proves to Hamlet that she has no respect and no remorse for the death of his father and even for him. other major dilemma Hamlet has is the power struggle between him and his mother. Naturally Gertrude feels as though Hamlet is still hers, and shall do what she says. She loves him so much, and wants him to see that everything will be okay, but Hamlet believes he can see through it. Hamlet has little or no intentions of taking orders from anyone, or being convinced otherwise by another person, especially his mother. Gertrude finally calls for Hamlet so that they can have a personal discussion about what has been going on, and Hamlet does not even speak to his mother, as if that is what she is.No more, sweet Hamletthese words like daggars enter my earsO speak to me no moreAs will not leave their tinct (III.iv.88-91)And there I see such black and grained spotsThou turnst my very eyes into my soul,O Hamlet, speak no more (III.iv.94-6)All of this happens because of that one point, one moment when everything changed for many people.After everything that has happened to Hamlet, Gertrude and their peers, you think it would get better, but it does not. The death of the real king causes so many problems in the lives of these people, and in the end, it ultimately leads to their demise. In the last battle of the play Hamlet is prepared to kill his uncle Claudius which is directly related to how Claudius marries his mother, and leaves Hamlet all alone. Gertrude indirectly dies by drinking the poison in a coasting of her son, which is when she shows the ultimate love towards Hamlet. Because she did love him so much, and never wanted King Hamlet to die, and always wanted Hamlet to be with her, and support her. At that point she thought that Hamlet would come back on board with her and she truly believes that love can triumph. Gertrude is ultimately killed by the love she has for her son.The two truly did love each other, and really would do anything for the other person. Throughout the play, the isolation they both suffered tore from their relationship. Hamlet was separating himself from her, and there was nothing Gertrude could do to change it. The relationship that a mother and a son have is tremendous and is so special to so many people. Finally, another result of their isolation puts a wall between them, and never allows them tohave that special relationship before they pass. A result of the isolation Hamlet has is that he received the measures of revenge. Not only did these two die because of this, others also did many others, such as Ophelia, Polonius, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern, ClaudiusSo, who were they? Gertrude was a loving mo ther, who loved her son so dearly, and Hamlet, a son who was torn from so many different angles. This happens all of the time in every day life, even when parents are divorced, the children do not want to see anyone new with their mom and dad. When they do, there is often conflict and tension between them. Or the whole idea of planning, and waiting until the consummate time and moment to go trough with the plan can be related to revenge in our lives. Such as 9/11, obviously that took a lot of planning and thought as well. The only thing I know for sure about Hamlet is that the ending was very solid. The king dies. penalize has been succeeded. The death of all of these people and of the kings symbolizes that evil is now over. There will be a new king, and he will start a new and pure beginning.

Suggest reasons why the memberships of trade blocs, such as the EU, has changed over time

Memberships of trade axiss changed over time because countries realized that there are a huge amount of benefits to joining a trade axis of rotation union. Benefits such as Free trade within the bloc which means that they have free access to each others markets, members of the trade bloc are encouraged to specialize. This means that at the regional level there is a wider application on ability to carry out a particular(a) economic activity e. g. making a specific product to a greater extent efficiently than another activity.In addition countries have Market access and trade k in a flashledgeableness which is when countries have easier access to each others markets meaning that trade between members is likely to increase. Trade creation exists when free trade enables high cost domestic producers to be replaced by low cost and also allow more efficient imports. Because low cost imports lead to lower priced imports, there is a consumption effect, with change magnitude demand resulti ng from lower prices.Also Producers from the member country can benefit from the application of scale economies, which will lead to lower costs and lower prices for consumers. Jobs may be created as a consequence of increased trade between member economies. There is increased protection. Firms inside the bloc are protected from cheaper imports from outside, such as the protection of the EU shoe industry from cheap imports from China and Vietnam. There are other long-term political and social benefits to trade blocs.The countries economies become more intertwined also the political reasons for close cooperation within the bloc increases. Countries understand that they have a stake in each other and make greater efforts to write down along. In that same way, increased business contacts usually mean that people must learn the culture of their trading partners. Many must learn in the buff languages and different business practices. In short, more people will come into contact with eac h other and will need to learn more to the highest degree each other. This breeds increased understanding amongst people.Another reason for the change is as for consumers are that there is often a greater variety of goods and services available in free trade blocs. Products like beer, detergent, clothing, and machine tools are often produced in all the countries after the free trade agreement they are often stocked in many stores. Products like satellite hook ups for televisions, computers and telephones are usually made more available to developing countries. Internet service providers are now able to sell to larger markets and more consumers have opportunities to purchase or use these services.

Forest life changes the characters Essay

In Shakespe ars As you like it, we find the characters attempting to escape the court. What they specifically argon escaping from are the briars of the working day world. The imaginativeness of briar bushes specifically enacts a form of entanglement that the world of the court is entrapping and the people in it are reflected as such. What is comely envenoms him that bears it, highlighting a rise polarisation of morality, that what is good is a hindrance in the world of the court.This is paralleled by what Touchstone (who represents the court as a jester, whom were always in the service of the court) says The sweetest ice hath the sourest rind. Indeed, the usurper is viewed as the rightful ruler of the court whereas the rightful ruler is branded an outlaw. So the characters escape to the forest in order to cleanse themselves of thinfected world (Playing upon the previous mention of envenoms as a form of physical affliction that requires cathartic release). One can argue that the ch aracters do move to the forest, and their characters change as such.One particularly strong example is how Shakespeare constructs the forest as a place of alternative knowledge Duke Senior finds that the winds are his councillors and that the trees shall be my (his) books, that they find sermons in stones. This highlights the homiletic edification that occurs when one eng historic periods with nature, and indeed, this is paralleled by the discourse expressed amongst Rosalind and Celia in Act I, where they comment on how fortune (A output of the court) and nature (Of the forest) are at odds with one another Fortune reigns in gifts of the world/not in the lineaments of nature.The escapism of the forest is that expressed when the gentlemen become merry men and brothers in exile highlighting how they are able to fleet time as they did in the golden age, with the merry men alluding exclusively to the notion of Robin hood, who represents an active rebellion against the court, suggest ing an underlying romanticisation of what it is to be an outlaw. Indeed, defying social norms appears to be what the forest epitomises, and as such, Rosalind even changes all perception of her by becoming Ganymede, she essentially dresses up to become someone different.Finally, we find the two main villains of the story Duke Frederick and Oliver have a very quick change of heart from the forest, which in both cases turn out to be spectacular examples of Deus Ex Machina, both being equally contrive but portrayed as legitimately woven into the story. So in that sense, the forest is a healing force. However, there is an argument for the opposite that the forest is hardly the same as the court and no significant change occurs. One of the biggest examples of this lies in the speech of Lord 1 regarding the murder of a deer.The deer are portrayed as native burghers in their own desert city, who retreat from the hunters aim into a sequestered languish. Jaques remarks then about how the fo resters are the mere usurpers who kill them up/in their assignd and native dwelling place. This is particularly significant because a parallel is drawn amongst the deer and the foresters, the deer is escaping usurpation in much the same way the foresters are, this is further enhanced by the item that the deer has a leathern coat, a deliberate wording by Shakespeare to highlight the parallels it has with its human usurpers.This usurpation is shown elsewhere in the book, Rosalind who buys the shepherds passion (Livelihood) because it is much upon her fashion, suggesting a transitory or lordly desire, devoid of consideration for the fact that the shepherd derives his survival from his flock. Indeed, she wishes to waste her time here, rather than use it for any meaningful purpose. Other aspects of the court are also filtered into the forest to enact a distinct lack of change.The notion of the merry men and brothers in exile is immediately undermined by the fact that the duke is refe rred to as your t fireerness, implying that the hierarchy of society is still in place, despite their attempts to gloss over it. Indeed, the very nature of them dressing up as foresters when they are in fact gentlemen enacts the nature of the painted pomp that is alluded to when referring to the court. The word pompous implies a level of self-importance and unnecessary grandiose, which is ever present in the forest to blow on whom I please (IE, to do as I wish).Conventionally in the pastoral, the return to reality (In this instance, the court) is forced due to the ephemeral nature of Arcadia. However, at the end of the play here, we find that the characters easily cast off their disguises as if they had never left, willingly returning to the court, signifying that there must have been little difference between the two worlds, and emphasising the fact that the court has been a constant throughout the play. One of the most famous quotes of the play, All the world is a stage is partic ularly significant here also.Throughout the story, the motley coat (Emblematic of the fool) has been alluded to, and it represents the players and by extension, the audience as a whole. If we are all players as in a play, with their exists and entrances/and many separate, then we are all fundamentally acting like the foresters all the time, we all are part of the same moment. Indeed, at the very end, we all are sans teeth, sans taste, sans everything, emphasising the fact we all end up subjected to time and age, no better for our experiences in life.This is particularly ironic of course, because earlier on in the story, the forest is exposit as having no clock, but it is infact time that undoes all as expressed in this passage, enacting the futility of escape and the absence of any change in outcome from action. Finally, we have the ephemeral nature of the escape for the audience. As alluded to in the preceding paragraph, the audience are players and actors in the play to, but do they change?At the very end, within the epilogue, Rosalind breaks the fourth wall, essentially undermining the experience of the play, returning the audience from the forest (The imaginative space of the play) to the court (Reality). She directly remarks upon the fact that it is a play, that it is a constructed narration and further commends it to be watched by the friends of the audience (Cementing the notion of realism in the fact that the play is a commercial enterprise at heart, not a creative escape).

Book Review of 1491 by Charles C. Mann Essay

With 1491New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus Charles C. Mann has written an extremely interesting and controversial book. Beginning in 1983 Mann began to move aware that research had indicated the commonly held lot of the settling of the Americas was wrong. The commonly held and taught belief that the Americas were inhabit by people who crossed the Bering Sea from Europe about 13,000 eld ago was wrong. Allegedly these people lived in small, isolated groups that had little impact on the environment.Instead Mann, with considerable documentation and research by scientists, archeologists and geographers supporting this view, argues that the Americas were inhabited thousands of years earlier, existed in far larger numbers, and had been successful at imposing their will on the landscape that in 1492 Columbus set foot in a hemisphere thoroughly marked by humankind (Mann, 1491, 4). Spurred by what he had seen and read and by the fact that his son was being taught the same to pic Mann had been taught in high school thirty years earlier, he wrote a book that explores what I he believes to be the three main foci of the new findings Indian human ecology . . . Indian origins . . . and Indian ecology (Mann, 1491, x-xi).Mann begins his book by discussing the notion of the Noble mortify, a concept that began in the early sixteenth century. This position is the notion that the natal people of the Americas lived an idyllic life prior to the arrival of Columbus or were savage barbarians who did nothing constructive. Mann cites forfendtolom de Las Casas a conquistador who had visited the Americas who believed Indians were natural creatures who dwelt, gentle as cows . . . waiting for millenniafor Christian instruction (Mann, 1491, 12-14).In essence this view is that of a colonist who came to the Americas looking for signs of the Old World. Since the Native Americans apparently did not have as outstanding an impact on the environment subsequent generations viewed the pre-Colombian people as either innocents or as barbarians. Both accounts showed the prejudice that these people lacked agencythey were not actors in their own right, but passive recipients of whatever windfalls or disasters happenstance put in their focusing (Mann, 1491, 12). It would be interesting to examine the European migration into the Americas from the point of view of the autochthonic people.Mann cites studies that have called into question the notion that Native Americans first arrived in the Americas 13,000 years ago over a land bridge in the Bering psyche and slowly migrated drifted south and east until they populated the Americas. In 1987 people who had supported this view publicly admitted that there is clear evidence of human habitation in Chile much than 12,000 years ago. Consequently it is unlikely that natives would have migrated more than 7,000 miles in less than a millennium leaving people in their waken to form new groups of people who would create thei r own culture. In addition there is evidence suggesting habitation in Chile more than 20,000 years ago. gain exploration has revealed numerous indications of large civilizations throughout Mesoamerica and South America that had existed and ended well before the sixteen century.According to Mann the current view among scholars is that the Western cerebral hemisphere was a thriving, stunningly diverse place, a tumult of languages, trade, and culture, a region where tens of millions of people loved and hated and worshipped as people do all over (Mann, 1491, 26-27). According to a 1999 linked Nations estimate, the population of the earth in the beginning of the sixteenth century was about 500 million. Estimates by Dobyns and others indicate that by 1630, surrounded by 80 and 100 million Native Americans had been killed by a variety of epidemics including small pox, typhus, and influenza. These numbers suggest that nearly one fifth of the worlds population was killed by disease in th e one hundred and fifty years after the arrival of Columbus (Mann, 1491, 94-96).According to Mann in 1491 the Inka (or Inca as it is more commonly spelled) was the largest empire on the planet. It was bigger than China, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and bigger by far than any European state. It extended for more than thirty-two degrees of latitude (the United States has a latitude length of approximately twenty-five degrees of latitude though of course a much wider degree of longitude). The Inka had a goal that was remarkably equivalent to the Europeans they want to knit the different groups of South America . . . into a single bureaucratic framework under the direct rule of the emperor(Mann, 1491, 66).They wanted to denote together the peoples religion, economics, and arts. At succession they were brutal. They would remove people from their homelands by means of a road system of approximately 25,000 miles, the longest in the world and locate them to live with and work with other p eople who had also been displaced. They developed a system of accounting that used ropes with knots in a way remarkably similar to the binary mathematics use in todays computers. Such an extensive and sophisticated government hardly supports the theory of the Nobel Savage living an idyllic life, doing nothing that affected their environment (Mann, 1491, 64-82).Interestingly, among those people who are reluctant to accept much(prenominal) an early arrival of Native Americans are Indian activists who do not wish to push the date of arrival of Native Americans further into the past. Particularly in light of the evidence that supports the notion that large civilizations such as the Incas and Aztecs were not the original inhabitants but had supplanted people that had arrived much earlier. If this were the case, the claim that their land was stolen by European immigrants is considerably weakened since the indigenous people at the time of Columbus were not the first to own the land, just the people who had most recently stolen the lands from the previous populations in the Americas.According to his website Mann is a journalist and writer. He is a correspondent for The Atlantic Monthly, Science, and Wired. He was written for a wide variety of magazines including The New York Times Magazine, Forbes ASAP, Smithsonian, and The Washington Post. He has co-authored four other books. Manns penning tends to focus on the intersection of science, technology, and commerce. He is a three time National Magazine Award finalist and has received numerous awards from the American Bar Association, the American Institute of Physics, the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, and the Margaret Sanger Foundation. Manns credentials indicate that he is a well qualified writer and does careful research.Manns writing has a broad-minded edge to it that often seeks to correct common perceptions about the topics he chooses to write about in this case the life of Native Americans before the arrival of Col umbus. 1491 is a well-written, well-organized book. Mann provides a survey of research since the early 1950s when the Noble Savage theory of Native Americans was first popularized. Although Mann clearly has a position he wants to convey, he provides a fair presentation of other positions and explains why he believes the Noble Savage theory does not account for many discoveries and recent research. He writes in a very readable style without the many subordinate clauses and circumlocutions professional scholars are often given to.A nice feature of the book is the cellular inclusion of maps and pictures located throughout the book instead of placing the maps on the flyleaf and having the pictures grouped together in the middle. Consequently, the impact of the pictures and maps is greater because they are pertinent to the nearby text. Mann provides ample endnotes some(prenominal) citation and explanatory notes that add to the authenticity of the text. The bibliography is comprehensive and lists use of a variety of scholarly journals from such disciplines as anthropology, geography, history and archeology among others.Manns writing is convincing. He provides considerable recently discovered information that contradicts the Noble Savage theory. It is apparent that people have lived throughout the Americas for a much longer time than the 13,000 years conventionally taught. Although future research and advanced technology will likely reveal new details and correct other errors, it is clear to that the indigenous people existed in much more sophisticated societies and in much larger numbers that has been believed.Works CitedMann, Charles C. 1491 New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. New York Alfred A. Knopf, 2005Mann, Charles C. Charles C. Mann. Charles Mann.org. 16 environ 2007 .

Tata Motors – Macro Environment

For financial year 2008, the TATA motors reported the consolidated revenues (net of excise) at Rs. 356. 51 bn affix a growth of 10. 2% over Rs. 323. 61 bn in the foregoing year. The Consolidated Profit after tax (PAT) for the year was Rs. 21. 67 bn, a marginal decrease over Rs. 21. 69 bn in the previous year. Standalone EBITDA impacted by 6. 6% to Rs. 30. 92 bn in FY08 from Rs 33. 12 bn in FY07 EBITDA margin stood at 10. 76% in FY08 as compared to 12. 06% in the previous financial year.Following are the main macro environmental factors from FY08 that had direct bearing on the companys revenue and profitability figures gross domestic product Growth further by the continuing thrust in investments which grew by 31. 6%, the gross domestic product growth in the one-third quarter of fiscal 2008 came in at 8. 4% compared to 9. 1% in the same quarter inhabit year. A good kharif season supported growth of 3. 2% in agriculture piece of music assiduity and services grew at a mode come o utd level of 8. 4% and 10. 5% respectively. CSOs advance estimates projects the overall GDP at 8. 7% in the full year 2008.While the sequential decline in the GDP growth (9. 3% and 8. 9% in the first two quarters of the current year) indicates moderation of growth, it is anticipate that the growth momentum would continue, led by investments. Risk to growth going forward is expected to pursue from worsening inflation, increasing interest rates and weak global cues. Infrastructure Index The growth in the infrastructure industries for the period Apr Feb08 was subdued with all sectors, except coal , witnessed a lower growth on a y-o-y basis. Crude oil saw the least growth of 0. % followed by Finished steel (5%), burn (5. 6%), Petroleum products (7. 2%) and cement(7. 5%) during this period. Index of Industrial Production IIP growth for the period Apr-Mar08 is 8. 1% over the corresponding period of last year. On a sectoral basis, manufacturing showed the largest decline in growth from 12. 5% to 8. 6% followed by electricity (7. 2% to 6. 4%) and mining (5. 4% to 5%). A construction at the use-based data indicates that while capital goods have shown a robust growth at 16. 5%, consumer goods decelerated mainly due to decline of 1% in consumer durables.Inflation The headline inflation, which declined from 6. 4% at the commencement of the fiscal year to a low of 3. 1% on October 13, 2007, has seen real increase in the afterwards half of fiscal year 2008. For the week ended may 10th, the headline inflation had move to 7. 82%,largely due to the rising global food and oil prices. This has instigated government to take stringent measures such as restricting exports of select products, lowering of excise duties and dissuading domestic manufacturers such as steel and cement companies from chore price increases.Prices of key raw materials used in the auto industry have also increase significantly. This is exerting pressure on the input cost of the auto manufacturers. I nterest rates In response to the lavishly inflation, RBI increased the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) by 50 bps to 8% before the scheduled policy shock and further by 25 bps at the policy meeting on April 29th 2008. With high global commodity prices and ample liquidity in the system indicating significant risk to inflation, it may be expected that RBI will continue to take stringent go to check the inflationary pressures in the economy.Any move to increase the interest rate would further impact industrial growth and investment momentum in the economy. Freight Rates The benchmark freight rate index registered a moderate 1. 1% y-o-y increase over the last one year while the diesel price index has increased by 3. 2% over the same period. The financing costs also increased during the year, putting up moderate pressure on the truck operators profitability position.The governing raised the prices of most widely used automotive fuel products, petrol and diesel, by Rs 2 per lambert and Re 1 per litre respectively on February 14, 2008. Since then the global oil prices have moved up significantly crossing $135 per barrel, hence further fuel price hike cannot be ruled out, despite ongoing inflationary pressures on the economy. National Highway Development Project (NHDP) With essential portion of the GQ having been completed and a significant portion of the NSEW corridor under implementation, the focus is now moved to kind IIIA and Phase V

Chapter 22 Apush Key Terms

Marcus Pando Period 4 Chapter 22 Key Terms Describe and say the historical significance of the following 7. Freedmens Bureau Initiated by chairman Abraham Lincoln and was int bared to last for one and only(a) year after the end of the civil War. At the end of the fight, the Bureaus main role was providing emergency food, housing, and medical aid to refugees, though it withal helped reunite families. Later, it focused its control on helping the freedmen adjust to their conditions of freedom.Its main job was setting up work opportunities and supervising take contracts. 8. Exodusters Was a name given to African Americans who left the southKansas in 1879 and 1880. After the end of reconstruction, racial subjection and rumors of the reinstitution of slavery led many freedmen to seek a new place to live. 9. Wade-Davis Bill Was a charge proposed for the Reconstruction of the South written by two Radical Republicans, Senator Benjamin Wade of Ohio and Representative henry Winter D avis of Mary arrive.In contrast to President Abraham Lincolns more lenient Ten Percent proposal, the bill made re-admittance to the substance for former Confederate states contingent on a majority in each Southern state to take the Ironclad oath to the effect they had never in the past supported the Confederacy. 10. Percent Plan 11. moderate/radical Republicans Radical Republicans were a loose faction of American politicians within the Republican company from about 1854 (before the American Civil War) until the end of Reconstruction in 1877.They called themselves radicals and were opposed during the war by moderates and fusty factions led by Abraham Lincoln and after the war by self-described conservatives (in the South) and Liberals (in the North). Radicals strongly opposed slavery during the war and after the war distrusted ex-Confederates, demanding harsh policies for the former rebels, and emphasizing civil rights and voting rights for Freedmen (recently freed slaves). 1 12. scandalous Codes Black Codes were laws in the unify States after the Civil War with the effect of limiting the civil rights and civil liberties of blacks.Even though the U. S. arrangement originally discriminated once against blacks and both Northern and Southern states had passed discriminatory legislation from the untimely 19th century, the term Black Codes is used most often to refer to legislation passed by Southern states at the end of the Civil War to control the labor, migration and other activities of newly-freed slaves. 13. sharecropping Sharecropping is a system of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crop produced on the land (e. g. , 50% of the crop).Sharecropping has a long history and there are a wide range of varied situations and types of agreements that have encompassed the system. Some are governed by tradition, others by law. 14. Civil Rights flake A fall in States national law that was mainly inte nded to protect the civil rights of African-Americans, in the wake of the American Civil War. The answer was enacted by coition in 1865 but vetoed by President Andrew Johnson. In April 1866 Congress again passed the bill. Although Johnson again vetoed it, a two-thirds majority in each house overcame the veto and the bill became law. 5. Fourteenth Amendment Its Citizenship Clause take into accounts a broad definition of citizenship that overruled the Supreme Courts ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) that had held that black people could not be citizens of the United States. 1 Its Due Process Clause prohibits state and local governments from depriving persons of life, liberty, or property without certain steps world taken to ensure fairness. This clause has been used to make most of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states, as vigorous as to recognize substantive and procedural rights.Its Equal Protection Clause requires each state to provide equal protection under the la w to all people within its jurisdiction. This clause was the basis for cook v. Board of Education (1954), the Supreme Court decision which precipitated the dismantling of racial segregation in United States education. In Reed v. Reed (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that laws arbitrarily requiring sex discrimination violate the Equal Protection Clause. The amendment also includes a number of clauses dealing with the Confederacy and its officials. 17. Reconstruction personationAfter the end of the American Civil War, as part of the on-going process of Reconstruction, the United States Congress passed four statutes known as Reconstruction Acts. The actual title of the initial legislation was An act to provide for the more efficient government of the come up States and it was passed on March 2, 1867. Fulfillment of the requirements of the Acts were necessary for the former Confederate States to be readmitted to the Union. The Acts excluded Tennessee, which had already ratified the f ourteenth Amendment and had been readmitted to the Union. 8. Fifteenth Amendment Prohibits each government in the United States from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizens race, color, or previous condition of servitude (for example, slavery). It was ratified on February 3, 1870. The Fifteenth Amendment is one of the Reconstruction Amendments. 19. Ex parte Milligan Was a United States Supreme Court case that ruled that the application of military tribunals to citizens when civilian courts are in time operating is unconstitutional.It was also controversial because it was one of the first cases after the end of the American Civil War. 22. scalawags Were southerly whites who supported Reconstruction and the Republican Party after the Civil War. Like similar terms much(prenominal) as carpetbagger the word has a long history of use as a slur against southerners considered by other conservative or pro-federation Southerners to betray southern values by supporting pol icies considered Northern much(prenominal) as desegregation and racial integration. 1 The term is commonly used in historical studies as a neutral descriptor of Southern White Republicans, though some historians have discarded the term cod to its history of pejorative connotations. 2 23. carpetbaggers Was a pejorative term Southerners gave to Northerners (also referred to as Yankees) who moved to the South during the Reconstruction era, amid 1865 and 1877.24. Ku Klux Klan advocated extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically expressed through terrorism. 10 Since the mid-20th century, the KKK has also been anti-communist. 10 The current manifestation is splintered into several(prenominal) chapters with no connections between each other it is classified as a hate group by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. 11 It is estimated to have between 3,000 and 5,000 members as of 2012. 12 The first Klan flourished in the Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. Members adopted white costumes robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be outlandish and terrifying, and to hide their identities. 13The snatch KKK flourished nationwide in the early and mid 1920s, and adopted the same costumes and code words as the first Klan, while introducing foul up burnings. 14 The third KKK emerged after World War II and was associated with opposing the Civil Rights Movement and progress among minorities. The second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent reference to the USAs Anglo-Saxon and Celtic blood, harking back to 19th-century nativism and claiming descent from the original 18th-century British colonial revolutionaries. 15 The first and third incarnations of the Klan have well-established records of engaging in terrorism and political violence, though historians dig whether or not the tactic was supported by the second KKK. 25. Fo rce Acts Can refer to several groups of acts passed by the United States Congress. The term usually refers to the events after the American Civil War. 26. Tenure of mail service Act Was a federal law (in force from 1867 to 1887) that was intended to restrict the power of the President of the United States to rack up certain office-holders without the approval of the Senate.The law was enacted on March 3, 1867, over the veto of President Andrew Johnson. It purported to deny the chairperson the power to remove any executive officer who had been appointed by a past president, without the advice and try for of the Senate, unless the Senate approved the removal during the next full session of Congress. 27. Impeachment of President Johnson The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson, 17th President of the United States, was one of the most dramatic events in the political life of the United States during Reconstruction, and the first impeachment in history of a sitting United States president.J ohnson was impeached for his efforts to undermine Congressional policy he was acquitted by one vote. The Impeachment was the motion of a lengthy political battle, between the moderate Johnson and the Radical Republican movement that dominated Congress and sought control of Reconstruction policies. Johnson was impeached on February 24, 1868 in the U. S. House of Representatives on eleven articles of impeachment detailing his high gear crimes and misdemeanors,1 in accordance with Article Two of the United States Constitution.The Houses primary charge against Johnson was with violation of the Tenure of Office Act, passed by Congress the previous year. Specifically, he had removed Edwin M. Stanton, the Secretary of War (whom the Tenure of Office Act was largely designed to protect), from office and replaced him with Major General Lorenzo Thomas. The House agreed to the articles of impeachment on March 2, 1868. The running play began three days later in the Senate, with Supreme Court Chief Justice Salmon P. ensue presiding.Trial concluded on May 26 with Johnsons acquittal, the votes for conviction being one less than the required two-thirds tally. The impeachment and incidental trial gained a historical reputation as an act of political expedience, rather than necessity, based on Johnsons defiance of an unconstitutional piece of legislation and with little regard for the will of the public (which, despite the unpopularity of Johnson, opposed the impeachment). Until the impeachment of Bill Clinton 131 years later, it was the only presidential impeachment in the history of the United States.

Different Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership

Matthew R. Fairholm University of s offheast Dakota Different Perspectives on the Practice of draws populace administrators desire non save unimaginative and suit qualified permission to exercise leading, further alike a practical and intellectual take ining of what leading actu full-length(prenominal)y is. Much has emerged in the humankind garbage disposal books and utilisation or so the urgency for and genuineness of national managers exerting leading in their throw, complementing the traditional functions of governingal solicitude and policy seeation.Calling on the experiences and ideas of practiti starrs, this article offers an empirical collarboth descriptive and prescriptive of what leading real looks like as it is practiced by preponderating managers. It uncovers quint lead linear locatings (ranging from leading as equivalent to scientific sharpensing, to leading being a whole-soul or spiritual endeavor) held by ordinary managers and discusses their implications for cosmos government. It legitimizes the idea that leading is a crucial permit of overt judicature and offers commonplace managers the chance to re stimulate or enhance those legitimate leading activities. everyday administrators non only need practical and intellectual permission to exercise lead, they need practical and intellectual on a lower floorstanding of what leaders actually is. Training open managers in the skills and techniques of leaders and wariness has become a major take off of prevalent human resource efforts ( solar day 2000 Sims 2002 Rainey and Kellough 2000 Ink 2000 Pynes 2003). Articles and essays stick surfaced in the literary productions roughly the need for and legitimacy of earthly concern managers exerting lead in their work at, complementing the traditional functions of organizational circumspection and policy and course implementation.Books shoot emerged to sum more than than specificity to the topic of leaders in the normal sector. Still, in the face of technicism, strict policy implementation, and a fear of administrative discretion, it has a great deal been a signifi weedt struggle to discuss the philosophy of leadership in frequent validation. This article offers empirical insight, both descriptive and prescriptive, near what leadership actually looks like as practiced by public managers, and it supports a growing instruction on leadership in the lit (Behn 1998 Terry 1995 Van Wart 2003). The interrogation findings mould ublic administration and the psyche public administrator by beginning(a) growing our basic taste of leadership, refining our perceived public administration powers consistent with that understanding, and finally, reshaping the passkey person schooling of public administrators. These new ideas about how public managers fancy and practice leadership legitimize the nonion that leadership is inherent in and a crucial exhibit of public administration, and it offers public managers the chance to improve or enhance those legitimate leadership activities. The apprehend s that the current trend of edifice leadership and focusing capacity among practiti hotshotrs will be undertaken with a more proper focal take down and with renewed guess- found and practical vigor. Background The Leadership Apology in Public cheek Public administration traditionally is the study and work of centering in public organizations. It is also the study and work of leadership in those organizations. Public administration emerged with a bias toward concern sciencethe expert, the decision dressr precisely forethought science has non sufficiently served public administration McSwite 1997). Bennis (1993) suggests that managers Matthew R. Fairholm is an assistant professor in the Political acquaintance De dowryment and the W. O. Farber middle(a) for Civic Leadership at the University of South Dakota. His teaching and training experi ence spans the public, private, nonprofit, and university settings, including all-inclusive training and consulting in the District of capital of South Carolina administration and with federal government executives. His academic and professional interests focus on public administration, leadership theory and practice, and organizational expression.E-mail emailprotected edu. Different Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership 577 focus on doing their work right (that is, correctly), while leadership is concerned with selecting the right things programs, policies, determine, goals, etc. to work on. In like a shots surroundings, it makes more sand for us to describe public administration as the practice and theory that grapples with doing the right things right in the lock away of society. In short, public administration is the work of charge and leadership. In contemporary literature, the plans of guidance nd leadership ar constantly being set a smashd, comp atomic numb er 18d, and variediated. 1 A simple mien to key the unequivocalion is that if you can count it, you can control it, you can program it, and therefore, you can manage it. If you cannot count it, you have to do leadership. While many take over whitethorn not see a distinction, the leadership literature today by and large hopes the differences. Notions of leadership, for instance, grounded the government reinvention efforts so prevalent in the 1990s (Ingraham, Sanders, and Thompson 1998).For example, Sanders (1998) argues that leadership is essential in the working and transformation of government. He suggests the key ingredients of leadership in government reinvention embroil single- headwayed purpose and a strategic side with a list for risk participation and persistence (55). Behn (1998) says that leadership is required in the universe of discourse of public administration to unthaw its inherent imperfections. He suggests that no matter what we cover the work of publ ic managers, managing the systems and procedures be only part of the job.Initiative, motivation, inspiration the things of leadershipalso play a critical spot in making government and government organizations work. Behn offers that the question is not whether they should lead, except rather what kind of leadership should public administrators be practicing. For him it is active, intelligent, entrepreneurial leadership that takes astute initiatives designed to help the agency not only achieve its purposes today but also to realise new capacity to achieve its objectives tomorrow (224). Terrys (1995) view of leadership serves as a backdrop to much of Behns discussion.While Behn foc personas on the traits and behaviors of public managers, Terry emphasizes a normative, determine-laden coming to leadership, dismissing the heroic leadership constructs in favor of the leader as conservator of institutional and organizational set and goals. The idea of public managers infusing val ues into an organization is not a new unrivaled, still if it is often ignored. Selznick (1983) states that the token of leadership is to inf practice the organization with values. And Denhardt (1981) says the theory and practice of public administration be integral to the suppuration of the state and its allocation f values in society. It follows, therefore, that public administration moldiness encompass outlying(prenominal) more than technical concerns (Hart 1984). Fairholm (1991) focuses a discussion 578 Public Administration suss out September/October 2004, Vol. 64, No. 5 of values leadership in the work of public administration, presenting a put of leadership that is consistent with the radical constitutional values that guide and shape the work of public managers. Luminaries in the line of view, much(prenominal) as Follett (1918), Barnard (1938), and Waldo (1980), have also discussed leadership issues in name of values and transactionhips.This focus has been ren ewed in the leadership literature discussing emotional intelligence, or the ability to understand heap and act wisely in human relations (Goleman 1995). Nevertheless(prenominal), for closely, leadership is only one of many supporting shargons of public administrations supremacy or efficacy, not a major concomitantor in public administration theory and practice. In fact, many public administration theorists avoid the topic of leadership altogether. James MacGregor fire (1978) offers a reason. In redbrick quantifys, he writes, leadership research and theory have been mis beed in mixer and political popular opinion. burn definitely argues that an ncompassing leadership theory has suffered both from an ill-advised intellectual trip down a blind alley, leading only to misguided ideas of authority, and from the inadequacy of empirical information (23). Researchers have denigrated the idea of leadership, he contends, because they misunderstand the evolving nature of authority derived from changing social structures, and because they have missed opportunities to tie in research procedures and focuses from intellectual interests much(prenominal) as psychology, sociology, history, and political science, not just scientific focussing, Weberian bureaucracy, and the like.Following Burnss argument, peradventure public administrators argon still afraid of the concepts of raw power, authority, and domination, with which a misguided history of leadership theory has endowed us with. Specifically, many in public administration suffer from a preoccupation with traditional arguments surrounding the effectiveness evils of authority. This preoccupation revolves around regular(prenominal) public administration issues and concerns that are described in ways adverse to the focus on leadership found in recent literature. These concerns can be summarized by what ight be termed the three Ds (1) dichotomy arguments that say leadership looks too much like governance and therefore should be eschewed (2) discretion arguments that simply define leadership as a maverick and inapplicable version of administrative discretion and (3) domination/ authority arguments that suggest leadership is merely anformer(a) form of domination and authority and, therefore, is inherently dangerous because it tends to create societal units that are dominated by the whims of unbridled (that is, unelected), morally hegemonic men of reason (McSwite 1997).Despite these objections (indeed, perhaps because of them), studying what leadership actually is and how it is applied makes sense in the world of public administration. As Burns once optimistically declared, At last we can hope to close the intellectual gap between the fecund canons of authority and a new and general theory of leadership (1978, 26). Certainly, studying leadership in public administration offers an luck to jump the practical hurdling that history and intellectual narrowness have presented. Such endeavors can begin to close an intellectual and practical gap and help complete the line of merchandise.Beginning to Fill the Public Administration Leadership Gap For public administration, the leadership gap has really only existed in the academic realm. Practitioners have been doing leadership and transaction with authority and influence all along, but without a good theoretical account for what they are doing. While some writers in the battleground have focused on leadership, overall, public administration scholars have done little to help understand what leadership in public organizations is. Van Wart (2003) suggests it is still an area worthy of more thought and especially more research. His eview of public administration articles suggests that leadership itself has not been in the mainstream of public administration literature and that a dearth of empirical research on leadership is evident. many a(prenominal) public administration academics are, at beat, ignoring leadership issu es and, at worst, rejecting the concept. Practitioners, on the other hand, are trying to work sufficient training or grounding in leadership to deal with the relationship-based issues they face daily. Because of this practitioner focus, a few universities have come forthed programs explicitly linking leadership and the public sector environment.Increasingly, government agencies are devoting time and financial resources to leadership and management-development programs. 2 Many state governments have committed to offering the nationally recognized certified public manager training to their employees. And most federal agencies have leadership-development programs for senior executives, middle managers, and new recruits with significant leadership potential. You K right off It When You devour It Even with all of this focus on leadership development, public administration as a field has not devoted sufficient cholarly vigilance to the topic. People often lump all executive functions or behavior into the word leadership. They disregard the unique leadership techniques that have prompted contemporary leadership scholars to differentiate leadership and management. Thus, they whitethorn say that virtually e verything done in organizations is leadership which also means that nothing is. adept reason for this lack of attention is that understanding leadership is hard. In part, this is true because of the many extant management and leadership theories, start outes, and renderings. To some xtent, though, these definitions of leadership simply reflect the theory that each case-by-case researcher has about the leadership phenomenon. sensation authority on leadership suggests, Leadership is like beauty. You know it when you see it. As Stogdill (1974, 7) suggests, there are as many definitions of leadership as there are persons who have seek to define the concept. Understanding leadership, indeed, may entail understanding peoples conceptions or take care sets about the phenomenon and framing these aspects in a utile standard. Studying practitioner views n leadership, therefore, is an appropriate and valuable start to understanding what leadership looks like in public administration to public administrators. This article deals with the authors study focusing on what leadership looks like to public managers. This research develops empirical evidence that different purviews on leadership exist that shape the behavior of individual practitioners in ways specific to their headspring sets. This is a personalized conceptions or perspectival greet to leadership study. This perspectival approach reveals the different ways that individual public managers see their eadership activities every dayhow they conceive of leadership from their perspective. Therefore, it provides a richer, more meaningful understanding of the concept of leadership and facilitates a more complete analysis of the leadership phenomenon. It also suggests it is likely th at practitioner leaders can grow in their understanding of leadership. Importantly, this research bump informs the work of public administrators by evince both the leadership and the management responsibilities that are evident as practitioners ply their craft. Leader and Leadership ii main approaches to studying leadership emerge.The most popular is a focus on the leader, suggesting that leadership is best understood by studying specific individuals in specific situations (Bennis 1984 Kouzes and Posner 1990 Carson 1987 Sanders 1998). Proponents of this method focus on the qualities, behaviors, and situational responses of those who phone call to be or are given the title of leader. In this first approach, leadership is what leaders are or do, and therefore the meaning of leadership derives from the work of the leader Leaders define leadership. The second approach recognizes that studying individual eaders may not get you to a general understanding of leadership (DePree 1992 Whe atley 1999 Heifetz 1994 Burns 1978 Greenleaf 1977). This approach rejects the idea that leadership is a summation of the qualities, behaviors, or situational responses of individuals in a position of authority at the head of organizations. Proponents of this approach accept that leadership is something larger than the leader that leadership encompasses all there is that defines who a Different Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership 579 leader may be. Hence, the meaning of leader (or who ay be labeled a leader) depends on the leadership techniques displayed, not the position held. This second approach differs from the leadercentric approach in the main by asking the question, what is leadership? instead of who is a leader? This second, more philosophical approach guides this research exploring how public managers view leadership. Applying the Perspectival Approach to Understanding Leadership Paradigmatic, perspectival, or worldview conceptions of how we look at the world are n ot new in literature. Barker (1992) uses the term paradigm to suggest a system or attern of integrating thoughts, actions, and practices. Graves (1970) describes different states of being, each of which determines actions, relationships, and measures of success. Although the states of being are somewhat hierarchically arranged, Gravess research shows that a person need not needs grow to blueer levels or states of being. Harman (1998), in reviewing the history of science and knowledge, suggests there are three fundamental ways (perspectives) of seeing and knowing the world and the phenomena of social interaction. Other authors see culture s shaping the way we view things in our public experiences (Quinn and McGrath 1985 Schein 1996 Herzberg 1984 Hofstede 1993). McWhinney (1984) apologizes the importance of looking at paradigmatic perspectives in studying leadership. He argues the different ways people experience reality result in distinctly different attitudes toward change, and understanding these different concepts contributes to new understanding about resistance to change and modes of leadership. Morgan (1998) also suggests that the way we see organizations influences how we operate within them and even shapes the types of activities that make sense ithin them. The Theory of Leadership Perspectives The research draws on the perspectives outlined by Gil Fairholm (1998). He suggests that people view leadership in at least five different ways. These perspectives not only shape how one subjectiveizes observation and externalizes effect sets, they also determine how one measures success in oneself and others. Thus, Fairholm says, defining leadership is an intensely personal activity limited by our personal paradigms or our mental state of being, our unique mind set (xv). Our leadership perspective defines what we mean when we say leadership and shapes how we iew successful leadership in ourselves and others. He explains that while the leadership perspectiv e that someone holds may not be the objective reality about leader580 Public Administration Review September/October 2004, Vol. 64, No. 5 ship, people holding that view arrange as if it is. Individuals immediately draw on their own conceptions to internalize conversations about leadership. They define leadership for themselves and use their perspective as the foot for judging whether others are exercising leadership. Frustration, confusion, and even conflict may cabbage because individuals may simply have ultiple, competing, even conflicting conceptions of what leadership is. Fairholm posits five distinct leadership mind sets that emerge from experience and literature from the past 100 eld or so. The first is leadership as (scientific) management. This perspective equates leadership with the type of management that draws on the scientific management movement of the early part of the twentieth century, which still has relevance for many even today. In this perspective, much emph asis is placed on managers understanding the one best way to heighten and maintain productivity among the employee ranks.Gulicks (1937) famous mnemonic, POSDCORB (plan, organize, staff, direct, coordinate, make-up and budget), had great influence on the work of public administrators by legitimizing and routinizing the administration of government and fits squarely in this perspective. The second perspective, leadership as uprightness management, suggests that leadership is management but focuses on what has been called the uprightness movement. Popularized in the 1980s by Peters and Waterman (1982), Deming (1986), and Juran (1989), this perspective focuses on systematic quality returns with a focus on the eople involved in the processes, the processes themselves, and the quality of products that are produced. The third perspective is leadership as a values-displacement activity. This perspective defines leadership as a relationship between leader and follower that allows for typical management objectives to be achieved primarily finished shared values, not merely direction and control. Leadership success depends more on values and shared day-dream than on organizational authority. Although the values-leadership perspective differentiates leadership and management, it still focuses much on the role of the leader in the elationship. The fourth perspective, leadership in a self-confidence culture, shifts the focus toward the close culture where interaction between the leader and the led is based on trust founded on shared values, recognizing the follower as having a key role in the leadership relationship. This mind set emphasizes teams, culture, and unwashed trust between leader and follower, which are the methods leaders use to institutionalize their values. The last perspective is whole-soul (spiritual) leadership. This perspective builds on the ideas of displacing values and maintaining a culture of trust, as it focuses attention n the whole-soul nature of both the individual leader and each follower. This perspective assumes that people have only one spirit, which manifests itself in both our professional and personal lives, and that the activity of leadership engages individuals at this upshot level. Spirit is defined in terms of the basis of comfort, strength, happiness the essence of self the source of personal meaning and values a personal belief system or inner certainty and an emotional level of being. Equating spiritual leadership with the comparatively new idea of emotional intelligence may seem atural. Emotional intelligence is indeed cogitate to social intelligence and wise human relations. It involves the ability to monitor ones own emotions, to detach among them, and to use the information to guide ones thinking and actions (Salovey and Mayer 1990). Emotional intelligence is a useful concept (perhaps for all of the perspectives, but especially from values leadership on), but it involves only a part of what s piritual leaders might use in their larger-scoped depute of capturing the spirit (the soul, the heart, or the character) of following at the emotional, ut also at the value, intellectual, and technical levels. wholly-soul (spiritual) leadership integrates the components of work and personal life into a omnibus(prenominal) system that fosters continuous growth, forward motion, self-awareness, and self leadership in much(prenominal) a way that leaders see others as whole persons with a variety of emotions, skills, knowledge, and abilities that go beyond the narrow confines of job needs. ghostly leadership is essentially the linking of our interior world of moral reflection with our outer world of work and social relationships. The theory suggests these five perspectives are distinct ut related hierarchically, leading to a more precise and comprehensive conception of leadership. This hierarchy suggests that succeeding perspectives encompass and go across lower-order perspectives , and that individuals must move through simpler perspectives ahead being able to comprehend and engage in leadership activities characterized by more complex perspectives. To gain a full picture of leadership, the theory suggests, we should take into account how a holarchy of leadership perspectives offers a compilation of leadership elements that produces a more comprehensive view of the leadership phenomenon Koestler 1970). Within this compilation of leadership elements, some transcend others to such a degree as to make the less include elements look less like true leadership. As we move up the personate, the distinctive elements of leadership as differentiated from management become more castigated. The Leadership Perspectives Model The leadership perspectives deterrent example explains leadership in terms of these embrace perspectives (figure 1). The model shows five concentric triangles, the smallest of which is scientific management and the largest of which is whole- s oul leadership.Thus, in two dimensions, we are able to see how one perspective can encompass and transcend another perspective. For example, values leadership encompasses the ideas of scientific management and excellence management, but transcends them in ways that help us to see distinct activities and approaches that create a line between management theories of the past and leadership ideas in contemporary literature. The leadership perspectives model operationalizes significant elements of Fairholms initial theory, illustrating how these constructs, along with operational categories and ey leadership elements, relate. The specific leadership elements are ones that are found in contemporary leadership literature. Overall, the model points the way not only to understand the phenomenon of leadership better, but also to teach leadership and develop individuals in their leadership activities. Key Research Findings This researcher performed a content analysis on 103 essays written by m iddle managers in the District of Columbia government describing their conception of leadership. data were also collected from 31 audiences of public managers (balanced in terms of government function, force-out grade level, gender, and ethnicity) in three metropolitan majuscule-area jurisdictions Arlington County, Virginia, Washington, DC, and Prince Georges County, Marylandas a supplement and ratification of the essays analysis. The content analysis and interview data reveal the following general findings about the leadership of public managers in terms of the five leadership perspectives. Five Leadership Perspectives.The content analysis revealed four distinct, subtile leadership perspectives and one transitional perspective (that is, excellence management). The scientific management, values leadership, trust culture leadership, and whole-soul leadership perspectives were evident as distinct mind sets held by practicing public executives. Fifteen of 103 essays (14. 6 percent ) reflected completely distinct leadership perspectives. All perspectives were evident in mixed or combination forms. The scientific management perspective was identified as the perspective of choice most often, receiving the most hits t 24 percent, while the excellence management perspective received the least at 15 percent. distributively hit measures the existence of at least one explanation or reference to a leadership element in the leadership perspectives model. The evidence for each leadership perspective is reinforced by the analysis of both the essays and the interviews. Excellence management garnered the least concrete support. It is the only perspective that did not have a pure form found in the essaysthat is, no one was identified as solely in this perspectiveand almost trine of the essays had Different Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership 581Figure 1 Leadership Perspectives Model 11. Ensure efficient use of resources to ensure convocation activity is controlle d and predictable 12. Ensure verifiably optimal productivity and resource allocation 13. surrogate continuous process-improvement environment for increased assist and productivity levels 14. Transform the environment and perceptions of followers to encourage innovation, high quality products, and excellent run 15. Help individuals become proactive contributors to group action based on shared values and agreed upon goals 16. Encourage high organizational performance and self-led followers 17.Ensure cultures conducive to coarse trust and unified collective action 18. Prioritization of coarse cultural values and organizational conduct in terms of those values 19. Relate to individuals such that concern for the whole person is paramount in face lift each other to higher levels of awareness and action 10. beaver in people is liberated in a context of continuous improvement of self, culture, and utility address Whole-Soul ( unearthly) Leadership depone Cultural Leadership set Le adership Excellence direction 1. Incentivization 2. Control 3. Direction Scientific direction 14. demand 15. zesty people in roblem definition and solution 16. Expressing common address/respect 17. Values prioritization 18. Teaching/ coaching 19. Empowering (fostering ownership) 11. Measuring/ appraising/rewarding individual performance 12. Organizing 13. Planning 14. Focusing on process improvement 15. Listening actively 16. Being accessible 17. prospect and enforcing values 18. Visioning 19. Focusing communication around the vision 10. Trust 11. Team building 12. Fostering a shared culture 10. Creating and maintaining culture through visioning 11. sharing governance 12. Measuring/appraising/ rewarding group performance 13.Inspiration 14. Liberating followers to build community and promote stewardship 15. Modeling a service orientation 13. Developing and enabling individual wholeness in a community (team) context 14. Fostering an intelligent organization 15. Setting moral st andards no hits relevant to this perspective. However, the interview data show it to be the most frequently described perspective. This finding suggests that excellence management may be more appropriately labeled a transition or bridge perspective from scientific management to values leadership. This perspective may reflect peoples tendency to mix the ocabularies of management and leadership as they try to express what it is they actually do. People hear the newer 582 Public Administration Review September/October 2004, Vol. 64, No. 5 terms of leadership, but they may not yet be able to shake off the traditions of management theory and the vocabulary of indus streak revolution. The result is a description of leadership that mixes the efficiency and productivity mantra of scientific management with the relationship, teamwork, values, and empowerment vocabulary of recent leadership literature, such as that found in the values-based leadership and emotional intelligence literature.Hi erarchical Leadership Perspectives. The five perspectives of leadership tend toward a hierarchy. The public managers described perspectives that related in loosely hierarchical waysperspectives that encompass and transcend other perspectives. In this sense, the scientific management perspective is of a lower order in the leadership perspective hierarchy. All of the other perspectives encompass and transcend it. Whole-soul leadership is of a higher order, transcending the other four. The interview data verify essay data and confirm the five perspectives relate in a hierarchical manner.Through trial and error, by increasing their awareness of leadership activities, or by increasing their levels of responsibility in the organization, individuals may occur from lower-order perspectives to higherorder perspectives. This suggests that some people may extend their understanding and practice of leadership over time. This could buy the farm if a career is maintained at the same organizatio nal level or if it spans quadruplicate levels. Data illustrate that adopting a new perspective transcends the previous one. For instance, the tools and behaviors of a lower-order perspective may be the building blocks for the ools and behaviors of succeeding perspectives, but they are not adopted unchanged from one perspective to another. As one moves up the hierarchy of leadership perspectives, the tools, behaviors, and approaches one uses are encompassed and transcended and can, at certain levels, be totally redirect by other tools and behaviors so as to be obsolete or even antithetical to the work of a leader in higher-order perspectives. Distinctiveness through the Operational Categories. The perspectives can be nocked by understanding how someone describes the implementation (or doing) of eadership, the tools and behaviors used, and the approaches to followers taken in the leadership relationship. The content analysis of all 103 essays suggests that specific leadership eleme nts within the approaches to followers category distinguish a persons leadership perspectives (such as giving orders, motivating, team building, inspiring). However, the tools and behaviors that individuals describe in doing leadership are more helpful in differentiating leadership perspectives than either of the other two. Table 1 summarizes the number of times a leadership element ithin the operational categories of the leadership perspectives was distinctly described in the essays. A total of 1,343 distinct references to the leadership elements that define the categories outlined in the leadership perspectives model were found in the 103 essays. The interview data reinforce the fact that the operational categories in the model are useful in distinguishing leadership perspectives. Seeing More the high Up You Are. The higher in the organizational hierarchy public managers are, and the more time in service they have, the more likely they are to subscribe to higher-order perspective s. perhaps this is a commonsensical notion, but rarely, if ever before, born out by research (though by no way is it to say that by virtue of promotion individuals necessarily adopt more include views of the leadership responsibilities). Comments from interview subjects validate this idea. One mid-level manager within the whole-soul leadership perspective stated bluntly that my views have changed over a number of years. Another response from a senior executive within the trust culture leadership perspective indicated, If you were to ask me five years ago I would have a different answer, Id have different thoughts. As this individual began to understand different aspects of the job, especially aspects dealing with values and relationships, new ideas and technologies began to emerge and were viewed as successful. These statements, typical of many this researcher received, lend evidence that people can and do move from one perspective to another and that the movement is toward higher -order perspectivesperspectives that are more cover and transcendent than previous conceptions. There may even be a point at which they realize what they thought they were doing in terms of leadership actually urned out to be more managerial in nature. A realization of how leadership differs from management causes them to focus their leadership effort differently. One public administrator confided that in this current job, I jumped right into management (there was a lot wrong in that area) and I was frustrated that I hadnt taken the time to do the leadership. Now I am starting from scratch all over focusing on the leadership firearm because the office still did not function well. Gender and Racial Congruence. All five perspectives were evident in male and female public managers at the ame relative frequencies. However, females tended slightly more toward the excellence management perspective, while males tended slightly more toward the scientific management perspective. All five perspectives were evident in African American and white public managers at the same relative frequencies. These facts suggest the leadership perspectives model applies regardless of the gender or race of the person engaging in leadership. Functional Incongruence. The data reveal the functional area of government in which public managers operate may influence leadership perspectives.Public managers in the public safety and justice function tend toward the first three perspectives in the hierarchy scientific management, excellence management, and values leadership. Public managers in the government support, direction, and finance function revealed all but the trust culture leadership perspective. Public managers in human services and education, economic regulations, and public works reflected all five leadership perspectives, although they tended toward the lower-order perspectives. Different Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership 583Table 1 Summary of Hits Within Each Perspective By Leadership Elements and Operational Categories Leadership perspective Operational categories Leadership elements Scientific management Ensure efficient use of resources to ensure group activity is controlled and predictable Ensure verifiably optimal productivity and resource allocation Measuring, appraising, and rewarding individual performance Organizing (to include such things as budgeting and staffing) Planning (to include such things as coordination and reporting) Incentivization Control Direction effectuation description Tools and behavior Approaches to followersTotal Excellence management Implementation description Tools and behavior Approaches to followers Total Values leadership Implementation description Tools and behavior Approaches to followers Total Trust cultural leadership Implementation description Tools and behavior Approaches to followers Total Whole soul leadership Implementation description Tools and behavior Approaches to followers Number of hits Foster cont inuous process-improvement environment for increased service and productivity levels Transform the environment and perceptions of followers to encourage innovation, high quality products, and xcellent services Focusing on process improvement Listening actively Being accessible (to include such things as managing by walking around and open-door policies) Motivation Engaging people in problem definition and solution Expressing common courtesy and respect Help individuals become proactive contributors to group action based on shared values and agreed upon goals Encourage high organizational performance and self-led followers Setting and enforcing values Visioning Focusing communication around the vision Values prioritization Teaching and coaching Empowering (fostering ownership)Ensure cultures conducive to mutual trust and unified collective action Prioritization of mutual cultural values and organizational conduct in terms of those values Creating and maintaining culture through visio ning Sharing governance Measuring, appraising, and rewarding group performance Trust Team building Fostering a shared culture Relate to individuals such that concern for the whole person is paramount in raising each other to higher levels of awareness and action Best in people is liberated in a context of continuous improvement of self, culture, and service delivery Developing and enabling individual wholeness in a ommunity (team) context Fostering an intelligent organization Setting moral standards Inspiration Liberating followers to build community and promote stewardship Modeling a service orientation Total 584 Public Administration Review September/October 2004, Vol. 64, No. 5 pct for Percent for element category 39 24 57 54 64 15 15 74 342 11 7 17 16 19 4 4 22 100 18 10 38 25 6 21 14 3 31 9 59 15 13 183 5 32 8 7 100 22 59 17 35 19 81 44 15 61 26 340 10 6 24 13 4 18 8 100 16 7 15 28 23 37 24 77 18 238 6 12 10 16 10 32 8 100 28 12 19 8 20 36 55 51 14 17 240 8 15 23 21 6 7 100 18 51 30 48 28 42 30 13 37 50 0 46 34 Discussion Implications for Public Administration The leadership perspectives model posited in this study emerges as a valid way to test both the descriptive and prescriptive potential of the perspectival research approach and helps to frame a more comprehensive view of leadership. It is descriptive in the sense that it defines and explores how one may view leadership and positions that perspective into an overarching leadership model. To some, leadership is scientific management, but that perspective may not be as encompassing (as complete a description of the phenomenon) as another perspective.The section of the model from values leadership to whole-soul leadership describes leadership in a more refined manner (and more in line with contemporary literature on leadership, such as emotional intelligence), with whole-soul leadership perhaps being the better overall description of what transcendent leadership looks like. The model is prescriptive in the sense that it explains which activities, tools, approaches, and philosophies are required to be effective or successful within each perspective. This research suggests that in order to fully understand what leadership is, we have to take into account that some f what we call leadership is often encompassed and transcended by other, more enlightening conceptions. The more enlightened we become in terms of transcending leadership elements, the more able we are to see leadership as distinct from what contemporary literature would distinguish as management. Burns (1978) refused to use the term management. Instead, he used the term transactional leadership to distinguish lower-order organizational technologies from the ideas of higher-order leadership, which he termed transforming leadership. This model adds new light (and support) for why Burns may have chosen to use eadership to describe his more managerial descriptions of organizational activities, in that some do view managem ent as leadership. However, we are able to understand through this model that some perspectives of what we do are not leadership at all, but rather managementperhaps good management, but management only. In other words, everything we call leadership may not actually conform to the distinctive technologies of leadership. This leadership perspectives model allows public administrators to more easily recognize their day-to-day leadership (and management) efforts and to see those efforts in broader, more encompassing ways.The research and findings based on the model can influence public administration and the individual public administrator by (1) growing their understanding of leadership, (2) helping to refine public administrators roles and recognize that their measures of success in these roles will reflect activities consistent with their leadership perspective, and (3) reshaping the professional training of public administrators. Growing Ones Understanding of Leadership This resear ch suggests that ones understanding of leadership depends on the perspective that one brings to the question.The perspectival approach to leadership assumes it is possible to expand and grow ones understanding of leadership, even to the point of realizing what one thought was leadership may more accurately be called management or, as Burns put it, transactional leadership. It does not assume one must necessarily move from one perspective to another, but it does suggest that movement can and does occur. Interview subjects reflected a sincere and reflective approach to leadership, which they felt intimately fit their views of how they interact with other people and how other people interact with them. These were not xpressions of leadership styles (that is, cypher activities to achieve some specific goal or achieve a particular agenda depending on the situation or follower maturity). Rather, the perspective a person holds defines (1) the truth to them about leadership, (2) the leade rs job, (3) how one analyzes the organization, (4) how one measures success in the leadership activity, and (5) how they view followership. The leadership perspective is the umbrella under which different leadership styles may be pursued or expressed (Hersey and Blanchard 1979). Leadership perspectives, therefore, are not leadership styles to be changed willy-nilly.Rather, leadership perspectives are paradigms and worldviews (leadership philosophies) that need not necessarily change over a lifetime, but may be grown and changed through concerted training efforts, life experiences, and learning opportunities. One interviewee in the public library system suggested the things she did and taked as a first-line manager were totally different than the things she does and believes now as a senior executive. She said that what got her to her current position was no longer effective where she shortly sits in the organization.As she progressed through different levels of the organization, sh e also progressed through different perspectives of what leadership meant to her and how she practiced it as a public administrator. Redefining and Refining the Roles of Public Administrators Just as leadership can be viewed in multiple ways, so can the roles of the public administrator. This research reinforces the idea that the perspective of leadership that public administrators accept (implicitly or explicitly) determines their actions and how they measure the relative success or failure of those actions. Therefore, the leadership erspectives within which public administrators operate most likely influences the roles they choose to play. Public administrators who sit squarely in the scientific management perspective accept that the traditional public administration principles of efficiency and effecDifferent Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership 585 tiveness and the activities summarized by POSDCORB fully explain the purposes and processes of their work. To them, technical managerial skill and scientific, reasoned precision must be the purview of public administration without the pressures of political activity, which rightly belong to politicians.Public administrators holding to the excellence management perspective add an emphasis on process improvement and stakeholder involvement to discover and resolve potential problems in efficient and effective processes. These first two perspectives, scientific management and excellence management, focus on the administrative side of the classic public administration dichotomy. Together, they ground the traditional measures of success for public administrators, which the leadership perspectives model suggests may actually be based on transactional management ideas not leadership at all.However, as we have seen, there are those who claim more for the profession of public administration than the technical and predictable. Many say that the politicsadministration dichotomy is no longer relevant, if it ever was. T hese public administration leaders bring a values perspective to the work they do and recognize their potentially influential place in society (Marini 1971 Waldo 1971 Frederickson 1997). some focus on the societal impact they can make. Others focus on the organizational impact they can make. Others find meaning in creating great public administrators one by one, either by teaching, mentoring, r going about their public-sector jobs in inspiring ways. These views of public administration may fit more good with the philosophies of higher-order leadership perspectives. No wonder, then, there are still disagreements within the field as to its proper role and stance in society There are public administrators who honestly measure success and implement leadership from dramatically different leadership mindsets. They use different tools and engage in behavior and approaches toward others very differently. These perspectives also guide how they view the work of other public administrators, always gauging the success or ailure or the appropriateness of anothers work based on how they conceive of leadership in public administration. Not only does this sometimes cause confusion and frustration within public organizations, where public servants are doing the day-to-day work of government, but it also adds to the confusion and frustration in debates about the field itself. Perhaps these debates might better focus on the perspectives of leadership among public administrators that dictate their values, goals, and behavior more so than the academically defined roles that public administrators are said to play.The perspectival approach to leadership, therefore, may encompass a way to analyze the field of public administration itself. 586 Public Administration Review September/October 2004, Vol. 64, No. 5 Some public administrators who hold to lower-order leadership perspectives may never see a reason to progress through different perspectives. The research findings in this st udy conclude, however, that there are perspectives of leadership that encompass and transcend lower-order perspectives, that growth and progression is evident in the ways people conceive of leadership, and that moving to igher-order perspectives increases a public administrators capacity to cope with increasingly complex issues, organizations, and relationships. Hence, there are ways of conceiving of leadership in public administration that transcend and encompass more limiting perspectives. This translates to public administrators who seem more organizationally sophisticated and emotionally intelligent, as well as more attuned to the personal or individual issues of their jobs. They deal more with people, public issues, and policies (both within the organizations and outside it) and are able to facilitate more success in an increasingly omplex world. The perspectival approach to leadership also points to a clearer way to understand the different measures of public administration su ccess. The hierarchical nature of the leadership perspectives model suggests the role of public administrators encompasses the technical implementer and skilled mediator roles, but transcends them as well. It suggests that public administrators may rightly play a more facilitative, policy-making, and collaborative roleroles that are more in line with higher-order leadership perspectivesand those roles may be more appropriate (if not necessarily more effective) roles in general.Shaping Professional Training, MPA Curricula Designs, and the Oughts of Public Administration Understanding leadership perspectives as they are applied to the work of public administration can be used not only to refine (and redefine) the field, but also to provide a foundation for training new public administrators. As definitive as the technical and traditional management skills of public administration are, there is also a need to focus on the recently recognized skills and perspectives of leadership such as relationship building, inspiration, culture creation, values change, creativity, and flexibility.If such a focus is neglected in the training and work of public administration, the field may never get past the continual debates about its legitimacy, usefulness, and place in government and society. In todays organizational climate, where technology and information are expanding rapidly, along with the knowledge base and professional and personal requirements of the workforce, higher-order leadership perspectives and the public administration roles associated with them may indeed be more effective. Public administrators are often in a better position to suggest new programs and new directions or government. Higher-order mind sets assume, or at least allow for, this function as a part of doing leadership in public administration. The leadership perspectives model helps to redefine the field to focus on public service as an opportunity to engage in leadership within public organizat ions. It supports our continual efforts to teach others to seek the highest ideals of public service, and thereby to leave to citizens a legacy of trust, integrity, and responsibility, as well as high-quality service delivery and accountability. This implies there are approaches to public administration that hould be adopted over others (such as community building, value shaping, visioning, and stewardship). It implies there are approaches to public administration that are more encompassing and transcendent than others. The research describes what leadership looks like in the work of public administration, emphasizing that the work within public organizations influences the work of public organizations. Public administrators can, therefore, better understand their work as leaders inside the organization not just middle managers, but middle leaders as well (G. Fairholm 2001 M. Fairholm 2002). Remember the one ublic manager who jumped right into management, but then realized he had to start from scratch all over focusing on the leadership piece because the office still did not function well. Well-functioning offices are key to welldelivered services and good government. Another public administrator explained that leaders need to be modeling behavior, what you want from people you must model. If you want to have a certain type of communication from others you must communicate that way. If you want people to develop people, you must develop people. You must model the work ethic do what is required o help. I believe in having respect for the position one holds, but I also believe in equality. You need to work to build a community. This perspective outlines a kind of organizational work that influences how both the internal and external mission of the organization is carried out. The leadership perspectives model clarifies leadership as distinct from discretion or mere uses or abuses of authority. The different perspectives of leadership make the work of public ad ministration look and aspect different depending on the different mind sets public managers hold from which they view their craft.These perspectives prescribe how public administration ought to be. Indeed, the oughts of public administration are shaped by the perspective of leadership that one holds. What the leadership perspectives model also offers, however, is that not all perspectives are equal in application. Some perspectives are more encompassing and transcendent than othersthat is, some are more operationally useful today than others. Recognizing this potential measure of our work should influence how this work is taught and how individuals are trained.Current (and past) master of public administration programs still teach mostly management skills and techniques. Often programs add the word strategic to the planning function to give it a top-box orientation, but it is still focused on institutional planning and numbers, not values. A course on managerial leadership is emble matic of this approach, and it is not sufficiently comprehensive. MPA curricula and professional development programs would benefit from discussing the descriptions of leadership perspectives and the type of public administration consistent with those descriptions. They should train specific skills, ompetencies, and technologies that the different perspectives demand, including emotional intelligence or other higher-order concepts about values, relationships, and dealing with stakeholders at the emotional level. MPA programs should include leadership specialties or include leadership as a core competency with courses to reinforce it. The leadership perspectives model itself offers fundamental skills and approaches that can be used as a framework to shape a training and development program or even as part of an MPA curriculum. For example, a five-day leadership training program might use the perspectives to outline each days activities.Each day would include a section on implementing leadership from that perspective, coupled with skills-development activities for the leadership elements within the tools and behavior and approaches to followers categories. Each day might then end with the implications for public administration from that perspective. Table 2 outlines such a training design. These curricula and programs should recognize some of the more normative issues about these perspectives and devote attention to answering the questions about how public administration should be thought about and practiced in encompassing and transcendent ways. ConclusionAs public administration begins to include discussions of leadership more explicitly in its work and training, the field will not only better understand its legitimate role in society, it will also produce men and women who are competently and confidently prepared to do the work of public leaders. The task of public administration todayboth intellectually and operationallyis to better understand these perspect ives and ensure the field is adopting the most appropriate and encompassing approaches to and measures of our work in the societies we live in, the organizations we work in, and the individual lives we influence.Overall, the perspectival approach to understanding leadership is a credible and valid way to better understand how people can operate in this complex yet intensely personal world within which public administration finds itself staunchly entrenched. Different Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership 587 Table 2 Generic Leadership Training computer program for Public Administrators General daily format Day 1 Leadership as Scientific Management Implementation descriptionwhat leadership looks like Day 2 Leadership as Excellence Management Implementation descriptionwhat leadership looks like Skills development Measuring, ppraising, and rewarding individual performance Organizing (to include such things as budgeting and staffing) Planning (to include such things as coordin ation and reporting) Focusing on process Setting and improvement enforcing values Listening actively Visioning Being accessible (to Focusing include such things communication as managing by around the vision walking around and open-door policies) Creating and Developing and maintaining culture enabling individual through visioning wholeness in a community (team) Sharing governance context Measuring, Fostering an appraising, and intelligent ewarding group organization performance Setting moral standards Follower relationship concepts Incentivization Control Direction Values prioritization Motivation Engaging people in Teaching and coaching problem definition and solution Empowering Expressing common (fostering courtesy and respect ownership) Trust Team building Fostering a shared culture Conclusion Public administration practiceEach day discuss what this leadership perspective tells me about my work. Introduction Day 3 Values Leadership Day 4 Trust Cultural Le adership Day 5 Whole-Soul Leadership Implementation descriptionwhat eadership looks like Implementation descriptionwhat leadership looks like Implementation descriptionwhat leadership looks like Inspiration Liberating followers to build community and promote stewardship Modeling a service orientation Notes References 1. This debate centers on some general ideas. Management embodies the more reasoned, scientific, position-based approach to organizational engagement, such as setting and maintaining organizational structure, dealing with complexity, solving organizational problems, making transactions between leader and those being led, and ensuring control and prediction.Leadership embodies the more relationship-based, values-laden, developmental aspect of the work we do in organizations, such as changing organizational contexts, transforming leader and those being led, setting and aligning organizational vision with group action, and ensuring individuals a voice so that they can g row into productive, proactive, and self-led followers (Burns 1978 Kotter 1990 Taylor 1915 Urwick 1944 Zaleznik 1977 Ackerman 1985 Rosener 1990). 2. Examples of these universities and programs include the Farber Center for Civic Leadership at the University of South Dakota, the Center for Excellence in Municipal Management t The George Washington University, the Management make up at the University of Richmond, and several programs at Harvard, Stanford, and the University of Chicago. Washington, DC has also devoted considerable resources to building and sustaining a publicprivate partnership with the academic, business, and philanthropic communities to focus on developing management and leadership capabilities in its midand senior-level management tier, though budget cuts now threaten the endeavor (CEMM 1996). See also Wimberley and Rubens (2002) for more on leadership development programs through partnerships.Ackerman, Leonard. 1985. Leadership vs. Managership. Leadership and Orga nization Development Journal 6(2) 1719. Barker, Joel. 1992. Future bite Discovering the New Paradigms of Success. New York W. Morrow. 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